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THE 



TINMAN'S MANUAL 



AND 



BUILDER'S 



AND 



MECHANIC'S HANDBOOK, 



DESIGNED FOR 

Tinmen, Japanners, Coppersmitlis, Engineers, Mechanics, Builders, Mill- 

■Wrights, Smiths, Masons, Carpenters, Joiners, Slaters, Plasterers, 

Painters, G-laziers, Pavers, Plumbers, Surveyors, Gangers, &c., &e.; with 

Compositions and Beceipts for other useful and important purposes in 

the Practical Arts, 



By I. R. BUTTS, 



Author of the " United Stales Business Man's Law Cabinet," '' Business Man's 
Law Library," " Merchant's and Mechanic's Assistant," &c., &c. 



BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED BY I. R. BUTTS & CXT^ 
CORlSrEK, OF SCHOOL AND WASHINGTON" STREET, 
Over TTiolviior «fc Ii^iolclfci' Coolsistore. 

I860. 




T4^ 



3 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S60, by I. R. Butts, in the 

Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Massachusetts. 



PREFACE. 



The present work is offered to Tinmenj Builders, MechanicSj and 
Engineers, as a useful manual of reference, and information. 

The first part of the work containing Bules, Diagkams and Tables , 
will be found very useful to Tinmen. 

Mr. Truesdell who has, for many years y used the Diagrams pre- 
pared by him for this work, now offers them to the public with every 
confidence. 

The Receipts for Japans, Varnishes, Cements, ^-c, were taken 
from *« lire's Dictionary, " ** Cooley's Cyclopedia," '*Muspratt's 
Chemistry," and other valuable publications. 

The sources from which most of the materials relating to Building, 
Mechanics, and Engineering have been derived, are *' Grier's Me- 
chanic's Calculator," ** Templeton's Workshop Companion," **The 
Engineer's and Contractor's Pocket-book," *'Adcock's Engineer," 
'* Smeaton's Builder's Companion," and *' Lowndes's Engineer's 
Handbook," which renders this portion of the work deserving of the 
utmost confidence. 



LETTER EROM L. W. TRUESDELL. 

Mr. Butts, — 

Dear Sir, — If I may be permitted to comment upon 
the first part of your book, I would like to point out to Tinmen the 
value of the Diagrams which, a few years ago, could not have been 
purchased at any price ; but as they are now to be published, and 
sold at a low price, I am confident they will be bought by every Tin- 



4 PREFACE. 

marij for I know, by experience, the perplexities to "wliicli they are 
often subjected from the want of them. 

With these Du'ections and Diagrams, the Tinman will be enabled 
to cut a Right-Angled or Circular Elbow of any size, in a few min- 
utes, and produce as perfect a mitre joint as can be made ; also, 
patterns for Flaring yessels, of any size or flare, Envelopes for Cones, 
Pyramid Cakes, Covers for Oval Dishes and Boilers, Funnel-shaped 
Covers for Pails, Breasts for Cans, Lips for Measures of any size, &c.* 

When about to make a copy from these diagrams the person should 
provide himself with a sheet of paper or tin-plate, and strictly follow 
the directions given. 

Suppose, for example, that he is about to copy Fig. 1, the directions 
are, first, from the centre C, describe a circle AB. Having described 
the circle AB, next, place the corner of the square on the centre C, and 
draw the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE. 

When the Tinman has become familiar with the diagrams, he will 
find them simple and convenient, and be better qualified to undertake 
work of a difi&cult character. If an Elbow at right-angles, of ten or 
fifteen inches diameter, should be required, with the directions and 
diagrams before him, he could cut it out in a few minutes ; and so 
with a curved elbow of any diameter, a semicircle, or an ellipses- 
shaped dish of any size. But without a rule or pattern it would be 
a difficult and troublesome undertaking. 

Having by experience proved the correctness and usefulness of 
these Diagrams, I can confidently recommend them to all persons 
engaged in the manufacture of Tin Ware. 

L. W. TRUESDELL. 

OwEGO, N. Y. Sept. 23, 1860. 

* In Tinman's Diagrams the allowance for locks is always omitted. 



CONTENTS 



RULES AND PIAGRAMS FOR WORKERS IN TIN, SHEET 
IRON AND COPPER. 



Page. 

Manufacture of Tin Plate 12 

Quality of Tin Plate 14 

CIRCLES. 

To find the Circumference of any 
Diameter 15 

To find the Area of a Sector of a 
Circle 15 

Proportion of Circles to enable ma- 
chinists to enlarge or reduce 
wheels without changing their 
motion 16 

The Circle and its Sections 27 

To find the centre of a Circle from 
a part of the Circumference 33 

Diameters, Circumferences, and 
Areas of Circles 41 

CYLINDERS. 

To find the Contents in Gallons of 
any Cylindrical Vessel 38 

Tables giving the Content in Gal- 
lons of Cylinders from 1 inch to 
30 feet Diameter 42 

Table giving the Content in Gal- 
lons of Cans from 3 inches to 40 
inches Diameter.. 45 

BEVEL COVERS. 

To describe Bevel Covers for Ves- 
sels, or Breasts for Cans 25 

To describe Bevel Covers for Ves- 
sels, or Breasts for Cans, {another 
mode) 32 

To describe Covers for Pails 25 

ELLIPSES OR OVALS. 

To describe an Ellipse 17 

Definition of an Oval, — note 17 

To describe an Ellipse {another 

mode) 18 

To find the Circumference of an 

Ellipse , 19 

To find the Area of an Ellipse 19 

To describe an Oval Boiler Cover 2G 
To draw an Ellipse, the transverse 

and conjuguie Diameters being 

given, i. e. tne length and width IIG 
To draw an Ellipse by means of 

two concentric circles 117 

1* 



Page. 
ELBOWS, 

To describe a Right Angled Elbow 20 
To describe a Straight Elbow (old 

method) 21 

To describe a Curved Elbow fi2 

To describe a Straight Elbow 

{another mode) 24 

FLARING VESSELS. 

To describe a Flaring Vessel Pat- 
teruj a Set of Patterns for a Py- 
ramid Cake, or an Envelope for 

a Cone 28 

To describe a Cone or Frustum.. . 29 
To strike the Side of a Flaring 

Vessel 81 

To construct the Frustum of a Cone 34 
To strike out a Cone or Frustum. . 35 
To find the content of a Cone . . 35 
To find the Angles of a Frustum of 
an inverted Pyramid, such as a 

Mill Hopper, &c 36 

To find the content of the Frustum 
of a Cone, such as a Cofiee-pot, 
Bowl,&c 36 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

To joint Lead Plates 23 

Soldering for Lead, Zinc, Tin, and 

Pewter 23 

To joint Lead Pipes, 24 

Soldermg for Copper 160 

To describe a Lip to a Measure. . 27 

To describe a Cycloid, or Curve. . 30 

To describe a Heart 30 

Tinning Iron 31 

A good Solder 82 

Sector, for obtaining Angles 34 

Sector, definition of. 34 

Rule to find the Content in Gallons 

of Frustums of Cones 37 

Rule to find the Content in Gallons 

of any Cylindrical Vessel 38 

Table to ascertain the weight of 
Pipes of various metals, and any 

Diameter required 38 

Table of Tin Plates, size and 

weight per box 39 

Table of Cans, quantity and qual- 
ity of Tin required for 2} to 125 

gallons .' 39 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Weight of a cylindrical and cubic 
inch, cubic foot and gallon of 
Waier 40 

Decimal Equivalents to the frac- 
tional pans of a Gallon or an Inch 40 

Tables containing the Diameters, 
Circumferences and Areas of 
Circles 42 

Tables giving ihe Diameters and 
Circumferences of Circles 171 

Tables to ascertain the weight of 
Lead Pipes 139 

Capacity of Cans in Gallons from 
3 inches to 40 inches in Diameter 45 

New Tinning Process 46 



Page. 

Crystallizing Tin Plate, how per- 
formed '. 46 

Tinnir.g Vessels of Brass or Copper 46 

Kusti lien's Metal for Tinning 46 

Instruments used in Drawing. . . . 101 
Composition of Britainiia xMetal for 

Spouts, Registers, Spoons, &c. . 91 
Composition of Britannia Metal for 
Lamps, Pillars, Handles, and 

Castings 92 

Solder for Britannia Ware 91 

Lacker for Tm Plate 73 & 94 

Solder, Tinman's 96 

Definitions of Arithmetical Signs 
used in this work 110 



RECEIPTS FOR THE USE OF JAPANNERS, VARNISHERS, 
BUILDERS, MECHANICS, &c. 

Soft Brilliant Varnish 62 

Brown Hard Spirit Varnishes — To 
prepare a Varnish for Coaling 
Metals — Varnish for Iron and 
Steel, for Iron "Work, Black for 
Iron Work, Bronze for Statuary 63 

Amber Varnishes, Black, Pale, 
Hard— Black Varnish 64 

Varnish for certain parts of Car- 
riages, Coaches, Mahogany, for 
Cabinet Makers — Cement Var- 
nish for water-tight Luiing — The 
Varnish of "Wai in for Gilded Ar- 
ticles — Oak Varnish — Varnish 
for "Wood-work — Dark Varnish 
for light Wood- work 65 

Varnish for Instruments, for Wood 
Tovs of Spa, for Furniture — To 
French Polish 66 

Furniture Polishes, Gloss, Cream, 
Oils, Pastes— Etching Varnishes 67 

Varnish for Engravings, Maps, to 
fix Engravings or Lithographs on 
^Vood, for Oil Paintings and 
Lithographs, for Paintings and 
Pictures— Milk of Wax 68 

Crystal Varnishes, Italian — Water 
Varnish for Oil Paimings — Var- 
nish for Paper-hangings, Book- 
binders, Card work.". 69 

Varnish for Printers — for Brick 
walls— Mastic Varnishes.^ India 
Rubber Varnishes 70 

Black Varnish for Harness — Boil- 
ed Oil or Linseed Oil Varnish — 
Dammar Varnish 71 

Common Varnish — AVaierproof 
Varnishes — Varnishes for Bal- 
loons, Gas Bags, &c.— Gold Var- 
nish — Wainscot Varnish for 
House Painting and Japanning 72 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 

Directions for Japanning 49 

While Japan Grounds— Gum Copal 50 
Black Grounds — Black Japan.... 51 
Brunswick Black — Blue Japan 
Grounds — Scarlet Japan — Yel- 
low Grounds — Green Japan 

Grounds 52 

Orange Colored Grounds — Purple 
Japan Grounds — Black Japan- 
Japan Black for Leather — Trans- 
parent Japan — Japanners' Copal 

Varnish 53 

Tortoise Shell Japan — Painting 
Japan Work — Japanning Old 
Tea-trays— Japan Finishing. ... 54 

VARNISHES — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Substances employed for making 

Varnishes 55 

Choice of Linseed Oil 56 

CHIEF RESINS EMPLOYED IN 
MAKING VARNISH. 

Amber — Anime — Benzoin — Colo- 
phony — Copal 56 

D ammara — Elimi — Lac — Mastic — 
Sandarach 57 

Turpentine — Alcohol — Naphtha 
and Methylated Spirit of Wine — 
Spirit Varnishes 5S 

Essence Varnishes — Oil Varnishes 
— Lacker 59 

VARNISHES. 

Copal Varnishes {six kinds) 60 

Copal Varnishes {three kinds) Cab- 
inet Varnish— Table Varnish — 
Common Table Varnish — Copal 

Varnish for Inside AVork 61 

Copal Polish— White Spirit Var- 
nish — White Hard Spirit Var- 
nishes —White Varnish 62 



LACKERS. 
Gold Lacker— Red Spirit Lacker- 
Pale Brass Lacker— Lacker for 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Tin — lificker Varnish — Deep 
Gold Colored Lacker— Lackers 
for Pictures, Metal, Wood, or 
Leather 73 

CEMENTS. 

Armenian, or Diamond Cement. . 74 
Cements for mending- Glass ^Vare 74 
Cement fur Stone-ware— Iron-Rust 
Cement — for making Architectu- 
ral Ornaments — VarJey's Mastic 
— Electrical and Chemical Appa- 
ratus Cement 75 

Cements for Iron Tubes, Boilers, 
Ivory, Mother of Pearl, Holes in 
Castings, Coppersmiths and En- 
gineers, Plumbers, Bottle corks, 

China and Leather 76 

Cements for Marble, Marble- work- 
ers, Coppersmiths, Glass, mend- 
ing Iron Pots and Pans, Cisterns 

and Casks 77 

Cements for mending Fractured 
Bodies of all kinds, for Cracks in 
Wood, joining Metals and Wood, 
for fastening Brass to Glass Ves- 
sels, Blades, and Files— -Gas-Fit- 
ter's Cement— Cement Paint. ... 78 

builders' cements. 

Cements for Terraces, Roofs, Re- 
servoirs, Fronts of Houses, &c.. . 79 

Cements for Brick Walls, Seams, 
and Tile roofs 80 

Coarse SlufT. 80 

Parker's Cement — Hamelein's Ce- 
ment—Plaster in imitation of 
Marble— Scagliola 81 

Maliha, or Greek Mastic — Fine 
Stuff— Stucco for Inside Walls 82 

Higgins's Stucco — Gauge Stuff- 



Page. 
Composition — Foundations of 

Buildings 83 

Concrete Floors — Fire-proof Com- 
position 84 

RECEIPTS. 

To Polish Wainscot and Mahoga- 
any — Imitation of Mahogany — 
Furniture Varnish — To make 
Glass and Stone Paper 85 

AVhitewash — Paint for Coating 
Wire Work— To Bleach Sponge 
— Lac Varnish for Vines— Razor 
Paste — Leather Varnish — To 
keep Tires Tight on Wheels 86 

To Cut Glass — Prepared Liquid 
Glue — Marine Glue — Paste for 
Envelopes — Dextrine, or British 
Gum— Gum Mucilage 87 

Flour Paste — Sealing Wax for 
Fruit Cans— Fusible Metal— Me- 
tallic Cement 88 

Artificial Gold — Or-mulo — Blanch- 
ed Copper — Browning Gun Bar- 
rels — Silvering Powder for Coat- 
ing Copper 89 

Alloys for Journal Boxes — Bells 
of Clocks — Tools — Cymbals and 
Gongs — Solder for Steel Joints — 
Files — To prevent Tools from 
Rusting — Axle-Grease— to Gal- 
vanize—Soft Gold Solder 90 

RECEIPTS AND COMPOSITIONS. 

Nearly 200 Compositions for Me- 
chanists, Iron and Brass Found- 
ers, Turners, Tinmen, Copper- 
smiths, Dentists, Finishers of 
Brass, German Silver, Britan- 
nia, and other useful purposes in 
the Practical Arts 91 



MECHANICAL DRAWING. 



Instruments used in Drawing 101 I 

The Sector 103 



Mechanical Drawing and Perspec- 
tive 



105 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Definition of Arithnetical Signs. . 110 
PROBLEMS. 

To find the Circumference of a Di- 
ameter 15 

To find the area of a Sector 15 

To find the Proportion of Circles 
by which to enlarge or reduce 
Wheels without changing their 
motion 10 

To find the various and proper Di- 
mensions of Materials whereby 
to construct Hipped Roofs j&c. . 30 



To find the Centre of a Circle from 
a part of the Circumference 33 

The Circle and its Sections 27 

Sector, for oblaininij^ Angles 34 

To inscribe an Eqmlateral Trian- 
gle within a given Circle Ill 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a 
Square 112 

Witliin a given Circle to inscribe a 
regular Pentagon 112 

Witliin a given Circle to describe 
a regular Hexagon 113 

To cut off the Coiners of a given 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 
Square^ so as to form a regular 
Octagon 113 

To divide a given Line into any 
Number of Parts, which Parts 
shall be in the same Proportion 
to each other as ihe Parts of 
some other given line, whether 
those parts are equal or unequal 114 

On a given Line to draw a Poly- 
gon of any Number of Sides, so 
that that Line shall be one side 
of a Polygon 114 

OP DRAWING CURVED LINES. 

To draw an Ellipse with the Rule 
and Compasses, the transverse 
and conjugate Diameters being 
given ; i. e. the length and width 116 

To draw an Ellipse by means of 



Page, 
two Concentric Circles. ........ 116 

To draw an Ellipse of any length 
and width • 18 

To find the Circumference &. Area 
of an Ellipse 19 

Other methods for describing an 
Ellipse 117 

To find the Centre and the two 
Axes of an Ellipse 118 

To draw a flat Arch by the inter- 
section of Lines, having the 
Opening and Spring or Rise 
given. 119 

To find the Form or Curvature of 
a raking Moulding that shall 
unite correctly with a level one 119 

To find the Form or Curvature of 
the Return in an open or broken 
Pediment 120 



EPITOME OF 

Of the Circle, Cylinxier, Sphere, 
Zone, &c 122 

Of the Square, Rectangle, Cube 123 
Surfaces and solidities of Bodies 124 

Of Triangles, Polygons, &c. . .' 124 

Of Ellipses, Cones, Frustums, &c. 125 

INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. 

Utility of the Slide Rule • 125 

Numeration 126 



MENSURATION. 

To Multiply Numbers by the Rule 126 
To divide Numbers upon the Rule 126 
Proportion or Rule of Three Direct 127 
Square & Cube Roots of Numbers 127 

Rule of Three Inverse 127 

Mensuration of Surface 128 

Mensuration of Solidity and Ca- 
pacity 129 

Power of Steam Engines 130 

Of Engine Boilers 130 



RULES AND TABLES FOR ARTIFICERS AND ENGINEERS. 



Measurement of Bricklayer's work 132 
Table to find the number of Bricks 

in any given Wall 133 

Measurement of Wells & Cisterns 133 
Measurement of Mason's Work.. 133 
Measurement of Carpenter's and 

Joiner's W^ork 134 

Table of different sized Nails to a lb 135 
Table of different sized Sashes, &c 136 
Measurement of Slater's Work.. . 136 

Table of American Slates. 136 

Table of Imported Slates 137 

Measurement of Plasterer's Work 137 
Measurement of Paver's Work. . . . 137 
Measurement of Painter's "Work... 137 
Measurement of Glazier's Work. . 138 
Table of Size and Number of 

Lights to the 100 Square Feet.. . 138 
Measurement of Plumber's Work 133 
Table of Sizes and Weight of Pa- 
tent Lead Pipe 139 

Table of Boston Lead Pipe 139 

Table of Comparative Strength and 
Weight of Ropes and Chains,.. . 139 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 
Definitions 140 

Table of Tenacities, Resistance to 



Compression, &c., of various 
Bodies 140 

Resistance to Lateral Pressure.... 140 

Table of Practical Data 141 

To find the dimensions of a beam 
of Timber to sustain a given 

Weight 141 

To determine the absolute strength 
of a Rectangular Beam of Tim- 
ber 141 

To determine the dimensions of a 
Beam with a given degree of de- 
flection 142 

Cast-iron Beams of strongest sec- 
tion c 142 

Of Wooden Beams, Trussed. 142 

Absolute Strength of Cast-iron 

Beams 142 

Dimensions for Cast-iron Beams. . 143 
To find the Weight of a Cast-iron 

Beam- 143 

Resistance to flexure by vertical 

pressure 143 

To determine the dimensions for a 

Column of Timber 144 

Resistance of Bodies to Twisting 144 
Relative strength of Metals to re- 
sist Torsion 144 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Breaking strength of a Bar of 
Wi ought Iron. 145 

Lateral strength of Wrought Iron 
as compared with Cast-iron 145 

Load on Bridges, Floors, Roofs, 
and Keams 145 

Strength of Beams, Bar of Wood, 
Stone, Metal, Ropes, Tubes, or 
Hollow Cylinders 146 

Models proportioned to Machines 146 

Metals arranged according to their 
Strength 147 

Woods arranged according to do. 147 

Strength of Cords, &c 147 

Strengih of Rectangular and Round 
Timber 148 

Table of the Cohesive Power of 
Bars of Metal 148 

Relative Strength of Cast and Mal- 
leable Iron 148 

STRENGTH Or BEAMS. 

Solid, Rectangular, Round, Hollow 149 
To find the breaking Weight in lbs. 149 
To find the proper Size for any giv- 
en purpose 150 

Strength of Cast-iron with Feath- 
ers or Flanges 150 

Wrought Iron Beams and Girders 151 

Hollow Girders 152 

To find the Strength of a Round 

Girder- 152 

To find the Strength of any Beam 152 

SOLID COLUMNS, 

To find the Strength of any Wro't 
Iron Column with Square ends 153 

To find the Strength of Round Col- 
umns exceeding 25 diameters in 
Length 154 

Tables of Powers for the Diame- 
ters and Lengths of Columns. . . 154 

HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

Square Columns of Plate Ironriv- 
etted 155 

To find the Strength of any Hol- 
low Wrought Iron Column .... 155 

Round Columns of Plate Iron .... 156 

CRANE. 

To find the Strain on the Post. ... 156 

COLD WATER PUMP. 

To find tne proper JSize, under any 
circumstances, capable of sup- 
plying twice ihc quantity ordina- 
rily used in injection 156 

FANS. 

Velocity of Fans 157 

The best Velocity of Circumfer- 
ence ibr dirterenl Densities. . . . 157 



Page. 
To find the Horse Power required 

for any Fan 157 

To find the Density to be attained 

with any given Fan 157 

To find the Quantity of Air that 

will be delivered by any Fan, 

the Density being known 158 

FRICTION. 
From Mr. Rennie's Experiments.. 158 

CENTRIFUGAL FORCE 
In terms of Weight 158 

PEDESTAL AND BRACKET. 

Thickness of cover, diameter, dis- 
lance, solid metal, &c 159 

TEMPERING. 

For Lancets, Razors, Penknives, 

Scissors, Hatchets, Saws, Chis- ^ 

els, Springs, &c 159 

CASE HARDENING. 

Articles, how Case Hardened. . . . 159 
To Case Harden Cast Iron 160 

HEAT. 

Effects of Heat on Metals, &c., at 
certain Temperatures 160 

SOLDERING. 
For Joints, Copper, Iron and Brass 160 

BORING. 

The best speed for boring Iron, 
drilling, and turning 161 

BRASS. 

Compositions of Brass 161 

Brass Castings, mode of Casting.. 161 

ROPE. 

To find the Breaking Weight of 

Tarred Hemp Rope 162 

To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Rope or Tarre'd Cordage 163 

To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope 163 
To find the Weight per Fathom of 

Hawser laid Manilla 163 

WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. 

To find the Weight of any Casting 163 
To find the Weight from the Areas 163 

To find the Weight in cwts 163 

AVeisht of Boiler Plates 163 

To find the Weight of Boiler Plates 164 

CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 

When Time is not taken into Ac- 
count 164 



10 



C0-NT2NTS. 



Page. 

To find the number of Revolutions 
of the last to one of the first, in a 
train of Wheels and Pinions. . . , 164 

When Time must be regarded. ... 165 

The distance between the Centres 
and Velocities of two Wheels be- 
ing given, to find their Diameters 165 

To determine the Proportion of 
Wheels for Screw-cutting by a 
Lathe 166 

Table of Change Wheels for Screw 
cutting; the leading Screw be- 
ing half inch pitchy or contain- 
ing 2 threads in an inch 167 

Table by which to determine the 
Number of Teeth, or Pitch of 
Small Wheels, or what is called 
the Manchester Principle 167 

Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron 
Wheels at a given Velocity 163 

WHEELS AND G¥DGE01^S, 

To find size of Teeth necessary to 
transmit a given Horse Power. . 16S 

To find the Horse Power thai any 
Wheel will transmit. 169 



Page, 
To find the muhiplying Number for 

any Wheel 169 

To find the Size of Teeth to carry 

a given Load in lbs.. . . ......... 169 

WATER. 

To find the Quantity of Water that 
will be discharged through an 
Orifice, or Pipe, in the side or 
bottom of a Vessel 169 

To find the size of Hole necessary 
to discharge a given Quantity of 
Water under a given Head 170 

To find the Height necessary to 
discharge a given Quantity thro' 
a given Orifice 170 

The Velocity of Water issuing 
from an Orifice in the side or bot- 
tom of a Vessel ascertained.... 170 

To find the Quantity of Water that 
will run through any Orifice, the 
top of which is level with the 
Surface of Water, as over a 
Sluice or Dam 170^ 

To find the Time in which a Vessel 
will empty itself through a given 
Orifice 170 



MECHANICAL TABLES FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE 
SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND ENGINEERS. 



Tables of the Diameters and Cir- 
cumferences of Circles 171 

Observations on do- 177 

Circumferences of Angled Iron 

Hoops— outside 179 

Circumferences of Angled Iron 

Hoops— inside 180 

Observations on the above Tables 181 
Tables of the Weight of 100 lbs. of 
Ship Spikes, Hatch Nails, Hook 
Heads, Deck Nails, Boat Spikes, 
Railroad Spikes & Horse Shoes 182 
Coppers, dimensions and weight of 183 

Copper Tubing, weight of. 183 

Brass, Copper, Steel and Lead, 
weight of a Foot from | to 3 inch- 
es Round or Square 183 

Flat Cast Iron, weight of a Foot.. . 184 
Cast Iron, Weight of a Superficial 

Foot, from ^ to 2 inches thick. . 184 
Table giving the Weight of Cast 
Iron, Copper, Brass, and Lead 
Balls, from 1 to 12 inch diameter 184 
Cast Iron, weight of a Foot in 
length of Square and Round. . . . 185 

SteeL weight of a Foot of Flat 185 

Parallel Angle Iron, of equal sides 186 



Parallel Angle Iron, unequal sides 186 
Taper Angle Iron, of equal sides. . 186 
Parallel T Iron, unequal width and 

depth ., 187 

Parallel T Iron, of equal depth and 

width 187 

Taper T Iron. 187 

Table of Weight of Sash Iron 188 

Table of Weight of Rails, top and 

bottom Tables 188 

Table of Weight of Temporary do. 188 
Tables showing the Weight of a 
lineal Foot of Malleable^Rectan- 
gular, or Flat Iron, from X to 3 
inches in thickness 189 

ELASTIC FOKCE OF STEAM. 

Table of the Elastic Properties of 
Steam and corresponding tempe- 
rature of Water 194 

Production & Properties of Steam 195 

Table of the Elastic Force of Steam 
the Pressure of the AtmosjAere 
not being included 195 

Table of the Consumption of Coal 
per hour in Steamers 196 

Evaporative Power of Coal 196 



GAUGER'S RULES AND TABLES. 



To Gauge Casks, U. States Gallons 201 
To Gauge Casks, Imperial Gallons 202 
To Ullage, or find the contents of 
Casks partly filled 203 



Tables of the Comparative Value 
of Imperial and United Stales 
Measures 203 

Miscellaneous Tables, 204 



RULES WITH DIAGRAMS 



FOR WORKERS IN 



TIN, SHEET IRON AND COPPER, 

AND 

TABLES GIVING THE DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, 
AND AREAS OF CIRCLES, 

AND 

THE CONTENTS OF EACH IN GALLONS. 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATE. 



** The different processes of the manufacture of tin plate may be de- 
scribed most properly in seven distinct stages. The first begins with 
the bars of iron which form the plate ; the last terminates with an 
account of the process of tinning their surface. The description is 
somewhat technical ; but a glance at the following heads will enable 
the reader to comprehend the whole process : — 

"1. Rolling is the first and most important point requisite to the 
production of the latten, or plates of iron, previous to the operation 
of tinning them. For this purpose the finest quality of charcoal iron 
is invariably employed, which, in its commercial state, generally 
consists of long flat bars. These are cut into small squares averaging 
one-half an inch in thickness, which are heated repeatedly in a fur- 
nace, and are repeatedly passing through iron rollers. A convenient 
degree of thinness having been obtained, the now extended plates are 
*' doubled up," heated, rolled, opened-out, heated and rolled again, 
until, at length, the standard thickness of the plate has been reached. 

*' 2. Shearing. — A pair of massive shears worked by machinery, is 
now applied to the rugged edges of this lamellar formation of iron- 
plate. It is cut into oblong squares, 14 inches by 10, and presents the 
appearance of a single plate of iron, beautifully smooth on its surface. 
A juvenile with a knife soon destroys the appearance, however, and 
eight plates are produced from the slightly coherent mass. 

'* 3. Scaling. — This process consists in freeing the iron surface from 
its oxyd and scorige. After an application of sulphuric acid, a number 
of plates, to the extent, we shall say, of 600 or 800, are packed in a 
cast-iron box, which is exposed for some hours to the heat of a furnace. 
On being opened the plates are found to have acquired a bright blue 
steel tint, and to be free from surface impurities. 
X *' 4. Cold Rolling. — It is impossible that the plates could pass 
through the last fiery ordeal without becoming disfigured. The cold 
rolling process corrects this. Each plate is separately passed through 
a pair of hard polished rollers, screwed tightly together. Not only do 
the plates acquire from this operation a high degree of smoothness 



MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATES. 13 

and regularity, but they likewise acquire the peculiar elasticity of 
hammered metal. One man will cold roll 225,000 plates in a week, 
and each of them is, on an average, three times passed through the 
rollers. 

«' 5. Annealing, — This process is also a modern improvement on the 
manufacture : 600 plates are again packed into cast iron boxes and 
exposed to the furnace. There is this difference in the present pro- 
cess from that of scaling — that the boxes must be preserved air-tight, 
otherwise the contained plates would inevitably weld together and 
produce a solid mass. The infinitessimal portion of confined air 
prevents this. 

'* 6. Pickling. — The plates are again consigned to a bath of diluted 
acid, till the surface becomes uniformly bright and clean. Some 
nice manipulation belongs to this process. Each plate is, on its re- 
moval from the acid, subjected to a rigid scrutiny by women, whose 
vocation it is to detect any remaining impurity, and scour it from 
the surface. These multifarious operations, it will be seen, are all 
preliminary to the last, and the most important of all — that of tinning. 
Theoretically simple, this process is practically difficult ; and to do 
it full justice would carry us beyond our limits. We shall however, 
mention the principal features. 

** 7. Tinning. — A rectangular cast iron bath, heated from below, 
and calculated to contain 200 or 300 sheets, and about a tun of pure 
block tin, is now put in request. A stratum of pyreumatic fat floats 
upon its surface. Close to the side of this tin pot stands another re- 
ceptacle, which is filled with melted grease, and contains the prepared 
plates. On the other side is an empty pot, with a grating ; and last 
of all there is yet another pot, containing a small stratum of melted 
tin. Let us follow the progress of a single plate. A functionary 
known as the *' washerman," armed with tongs and a hempen brush, 
withdraws the plate from the bath of tin wherein it has been soaking ; 
and, with a degree of dexterity only to be acquired by long practice, 
sweeps one side of the plate clean, and then reversing it, repeats the 
operation. In an instant it is again submerged in the liquid tin, and 
is then as quickly transferred to the liquid grease. The peculiar use 
of the hot grease consists in the property it possesses of equalizing 
the distribution of the tin, of retaining the superfluous metal, and of 
spreading the remainder equally on the surface of the iron. Still 
there is left on the jjlatc what we may term a salvage ; and this is 
2 



14 MANUFACTURE OF TIN PLATES. 

finally removed by means of the last tin pot, which just contains the 
necessary quantity of fluid metal to melt it off — a smart blow being 
given at the same moment to assist the disengagement. The '' list- 
mark," may be observed upon every tin plate without exception. 
We may add here, that an expert washerman will finish 6000 metal- 
lic plates in twelve hours, notwithstanding that each plate is twice 
washed on both sides, and twice dipped into the melted tin. After 
some intermediate operations — for we need not continue the consec- 
utive description — the plates are sent to the final operation of clean- 
ing. For this purpose they are rubbed with bran, and dusted upon 
tables ; after which they present the beautiful silvery appearance so 
characteristic of the best English tin plate. Last of all they reach 
an individual called the ''sorter," who subjects every j)late to a 
strict examination, rejects those which are found to be defective, and 
sends those which are approved to be packed, 300 at a time, in the 
rough wooden boxes, with the cabalistic signs with which the most of 
us have been familiar since the days of our adventures in the back- 
shop of the tinsmith." — \_From the Builder, "[ 



QUALITY OF TIN PLATE. 

The tests for tin plates are ductility, strength, and color ; and to 
possess these, the iron used must be of the best quality, and all the 
process be conducted with care and skill. The following conditions 
are inserted in some specifications, and will serve to indicate the 
strength and ductility of first-class tin plates : — 

1st, They must bear cutting into strips of a width equal to ten 
times the thickness of the plate, both with and across the fibre, with- 
out splitting ; the strips must bear, while hot, being bent upon a 
mould, to a sweep equal to four times the width of the strip. 

2ud, While cold, the plates must bear bending in a heading ma- 
chine, in such a manner as to form a cylinder, the diameter of which 
shall at most be equal to sixty times the thickness of the plate. In 
these tests, the plate must show neither flaw nor crack of any kind. 



#.t|jtaMi0ii 0f giigamsi* 



TO FIND THE CmCUMFERENCE OF ANY DIAMETER. 

EDrawn for this work by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 1. 



From the centre C describe a circle AB, having the required diam- 
eter ; then place the corner of the square at the centre C, and draw 
the lines CD and CE ; then draw the chord DE : three times the diam- 
eter added to the distance from the middle of the chord DFE to the 
middle of the subtending arc DGE, will be the circumference sought. 



TO FIND THE AREA OF THE SECTOR OF A CIRCLE. 
Rule. Multiply the length of the arc DGE by its radius DC, 
and half the product is the area. 

The length of the arc DGE equal Oi feet, and the radii CD, CE, 
equal 7 feet required the area. 

9-5 X 7 = GG-5 -f- 2 = 33-25 the area. 



16 



PROPORTION OF CIRCLES. 



PROPORTION OF CIRCLES. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Teuksdell, Tinman, Owego, N". Y. 

Oi^igina/l • 

Fig. 2. 




To enable machinists to enlarge or reduce machinery wheels with- 
out changing their respective motion. 

First, describe two circles AB and CD the size of the largest wheels 
which you wish to change to a large or small machine, with the 
centre P of the smaller circle CD on the cu'cumference of the laro-e 
one AB ; then draw two lines LM and NO tangent to the circles AB 
and CD, and a line IK passing through their centres P and R ; then 
if you wish to reduce the machine, describe a circle the size you wish 
to reduce it to ; if one-half, for example, have the centre Q one-half 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 



17 



the" distance from R to S and describe the circle EF, and on its cir- 
cumference T as a centre, describe a circle GH, allowing their cir- 
cumferences to touch the tangent lines LM and NO, which will make 
the circle EF one-half the size of the circle AB, and GH one-half the' 
size of CD ; therefore EF and GH are in the same proportion to each 
other as AB and CD. 

If you wish to reduce one-third, have the centre Q one-third the 
distance from R to S ; if one-fourth have the centre Q one-fourth the 
distance from R to S, and so on. This calculation may be applied 
beyond the centre R for enlarging machine wheels, which will enable 
you to make the alteration without changing their respective motion. 



TO DE-SCRIBE AN ELLIPSE, or OVAL. 

[Simple Method.] 

Fig. 3. 



G r 




At a given distance, equal to the required eccentricity of the ellipse, 
place two pins, A and B, and pass a string, ACB, round them ; 
keep the string stretched by a pencil or tracer, C, and move the pencil 
along, keeping the string all the while equally tense, then will the 
ellipse CGLFH be described. A and B are the foci of the ellipse, 
D the centre, DA or DB the eccentricity, EF the principal axis or 
longer diameter, G H the shorter diameter, and if from any point L in 
the curve a line be drawn perpendicular to the axis, then will LK 
be an ordinate to the axis corresponding to the point L, and the parts 
of the axis EK, KF into which LK divides it are said to be the ab- 
scissoe corresponding to that ordinate. 

NOTE. — Oval. A curve line, the two diameters of which are ot^ unequal 
Icnp^lh, and is allied in form to the ellipse. An ellipse is that fip^ure which is 
produced by cutting' a cone or cylinder in a direction oblique to its axis, and 
passing through its sides. An oval maybe formed by joining di lie rent seg- 
ments of circles, so that their meeting f^hall not be perceived, but form a contin- 
uous curve line. All ellipses are ovals, but all ovals are i.ot ellipses ; for the 
term oval may be applied to all egg-shaped figures, those which arc l)roader at 
Oftc cud than the other, as well as those whose ends are equally curved. 

2* 



18 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 
Oi?i^iiTal- 

FiG. 4. 




Tc describe an ellipse of any length and width, and by it to describe 
a pattern for the sides of a vessel of any flare. 

First draw an indefinite line DE perpendicular to the line AB, and 
from C, the point of intersection, as a centre, describe a circle FG, 
haying the diameter equal to the length of the ellipse ; from the 



TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE. 19 

same centre C describe a circle HJ equal to the width ; then describe 
the end circles LK' and LK, as much less than the width as the width 
is less than the length ; then draw the lines MN and MN tangent to 
the circles K'L, HJ and KL ; from the middle of the line MN at erect 
a perpendicular produced until it intersects the indefinite line DE ; 
frOm the point of intersection P as a centre, describe the arc K'HK, 
and with the same sweep of the dividers mark the point R on the line 
DE ; from the point R draw the lines RU and RV through the points 
K' and K where the arc K'HK touches the end circles K'L and KL ; 
then place one foot of the dividers on the point R and span them to 
the point li, and describe the arc Q'HQ, which will be equal in length 
to the arc K'HK ; from the same centre R describe the arc UWV the 
width of the pattern ; then span the dividers the diameter of the end 
circle KL ; place one foot of the dividers on the line RV, at point Q, 
and the other at Y as a centre, describe the arc QT the length of 
the curve line KG, and with the same sweep of the dividers describe 
the arc T'Q' from the centre Y^ on the line RU ; then span the dividers 
from Y' to U, and from Y' as a centre, describe the arc UX, and from 
Y as a centre, destsribe the arc VX, which completes the description of 
the pattern. 

The more flare you wish the pattern to have, the nearer the centre 
point R must be to H ; and the less flare, the further -the centre point 
R must be from H ; in the same proportion as you move the centre 
R towards, or from H, you must move the centre Y towards, or from 
Q, or which would be the same as spanning the dividers less, or greater, 
than the diameter of the end circle KL. 

TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE OF AN ELLIPSE. 
Rule. — Multiply half the sum of the ty/o diameters by 3 -1410, and 
the product will be the circumference. 

Example. — Suppose the longer diameter 6 inches and the shorter 
diameter 4 inches, then G added to 4 equal 10, divided by 2 equal 5, 
multiplied by 3*1416 equal 15*7080 inches circumference. 



TO FIND THE AREA OF AN ELLIPSE. 

Rule. — Multiply the longer diameter by the shorter diameter, and 
by '7854, and the product will be the area. 

Example. — Required the area of an ellipse whose longer diameter 
is G inches and shorter diameter 4 inches? 

G X 4 X -7854 = 18-84DG, the area. 



20 TO DESCRIBE A RIGHT ANGLED ELEOW. 

\ 

' TO DESCRIBE A PJGHT ANGLED ELBOW. 

[Drawn for this -work by L. ^Y. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 
Oi'lg-ina/l . 

Fig. 5. 




First construct a rectangle ADEB equal in width to the diameter 
of the eiboTT, and the length equal to the circumference; then from 
the point J, the middle of the line AB, draw the line JH, and from 
the point F, the middle of the line AD, draw the line FG ; from the 
point J draw two diagonal lines JD and JE ; then span the dividers 
so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, viz. 
J, L, 0, T, 0, V, E ; from the point L erect a perpendicular, pro- 
duced to the line JH ; from the point of contact M, as a centre, 
describe the arc NJO for the top of the elbow, and from the points 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 



21 



M' and M' as centres, witli the same sweep of the dividers, describe 
the arcs NO and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tan- 
gent to the arcs NO and NJ, having the points of contact at S and 
S ; on this tangent line erect a perpendicular passing through the 
point N produced until it intersects the line BE produced ; then place 
one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection R and span them 
over the dotted line to the point T, and with the dividers thus spanned 
describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ; these arcs and the arcs NO, 
NJO, and ON will be the right angled elbow required. 



TO DESCKIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 

[Old Method.] 

Fig. 6. 



A 














■V 


z::^ — 






1 












1 


\ 










^ 




' 


\, 










„/^ 


^ 






2 


\ 






/ 










\ 








*^-z 










\ 




/ 


^C 




,.„ 






A 


\ 




v4= 












V ^ 


/ 


i 














e 


\ 


f AS 










6 


// 


(L 


















f 


\\ 


6 




B 


7, 


^ 
























'i^ 


7 




























1 





I) 



Mark out the length and depth of the elbow, ABCD ; draw a semi- 
circle at each end, o.s from AB and CD ; divide each semicircle 
into eight parts ; draw horizontal lines as shown from 1 to 1, 2 
to 2, &c. ; divide the circumference or length, ACBD, into sixteen 
equal parts, and draw perpendicular lines as in figure ; draw a line 
from a to 6 and from 6 to c, and on the opposite side from d to e 
and e to/; for the top sweep set the dividers on fourth line from 
top and sweep two of the spaces ; the same at the corner ; on 
space for the remaining sweeps set the dividers so to intersect in 
the three corners of the spaces marked X. The seams must bo 
added to drawing. 



22 



TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 



TO DESCRIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 

i:Dra\m for this work by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owego,N. Y.] 
Oi-i g-i nal . 

Fig. 7. 




Fig. 8. 




TO DESCEIBE A CURVED ELBOW. 23 

Describe two circles UX and VS, the curves desired for the elbow, 
having the distance from U to V equal to the diameter ; then divide 
the circle V^ W, R and S, into as many sections as desired ; then 
construct a rectangle, Fig. 8, ADEB, the width equal to the width of 
one section VW, Fig. 7, and the length equal to the circumference of 
the elbow ; then span the dividers from the point R to the point P at 
the dotted line, Fig. 7, and with the dividers thus spanned mark the 
points FF' Fig. 8, from points A and D, and draw the lines FG and 
F'G' ; from point I draw the two diagonal lines IF and IG, span the 
dividers so as to divide one of these diagonal lines into six equal parts, 
viz. I, L, 0, T, 0, V, G ; from the point L erect a perpendicular 
line produced until it intersects the line IH produced ; from the 
point of intersection M, as a centre, describe the arc NIO for the top 
of the elbow ; with the same sweep oi the dividers describe the arcs NO 
and NO ; then draw an indefinite straight line PQ tangent to the 
arcs NO and NI, having the points of contact at S and S ; on this 
tangent line erect a perpendicular line passing through the point N 
(same as in Fig. 5), produced until it intersects the line BE pro- 
duced ; then place one foot of the dividers on the point of intersection 
and span them over the dotted line to the point T, (same as in Fig. 5), 
and with the dividers spanned describe the arcs TS, TS, TS, and TS ; 
these arcs and the arcs NO, NIO and ON, will be one side of the 
section, and by the same rule the other side of the section may be 
described at the same time, which will be a pattern to cut the other 
sections by. 

SOLDERING. 

For Lead the solder is 1 part tin, 1 to 2 of lead; — for Tin 1 to 
2 parts tin to 1 of lead ; — for Zinc 1 part tin to 1 to 2 of lead ; — 
for Pewter 1 part tin to 1 of lead, and 1 to 2 parts of bismuth. 

The surfaces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth, and 
then covered with sal-ammoniac, or resin, or both ; the solder is then 
applied, being melted in, and smoothed over by the soldering iron. 

To Joint Lead Plates. — The joints of lead plates for some purposes 
arc made as follows : — The edges are brought together, hammered 
down into a sort of channel cut out of wood, and secured with a few 
tacks. The hollow is then scraped clean with a scraper, rubbed over 
witli candle grease, and a stream of hot lead is poured into it, the 
surface being afterwards smoothed with a red-hot plumber's iiou. 



24 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 



TO DESCRIBE A STRAIGHT ELBOW. 

[Another Method for describing a Straight Elbow.] 

Figs. 9 & 10. 
Fig, 10. Fig. 9. 













/ 




















e 






p. 














') 


/ 


^ 






"^" 


\ 










\ 


v 














\^ 






c< 


y 


















X 


.a 




Fig. 9. — Draw a profile of half of the elbow wanted, and mark 
a semicircle on the line representing the diameter, divide the semi-, 
circle into six equal parts, draw perpendicular lines from each divi- 
sion on the circle to the angle line as on figure. 

Fig. 10. Draw the circumference and depth of elbow wanted, 
and divide into twelve equal parts, mark the height of perpendic- 
ular lines of Fig. 9 on Fig. 10 a Z> c &c. ; set your dividers the 
same as for the semicircle and sweep from e to e intersecting with / 
and the same from a to the corner , then set the dividers one-third 
the circumference and sweep from e to d each side, and from a io h 
each side at bottom ; then set your dividers three-fourths of the cir- 
cumference and sweep from c io d each side on top, and from c to 
b at bottom, and you obtain a more correct pattern than is gen- 
erally used. Allow for the lap or seam outside of your drawing, 
and lay out the elbow deep enough to put together by swedge or 
machine. Be careful in dividing and marking out, and the large 
end will be true without trimming. The seams must be added to 
drawinff. 



To Joint Lead Pipes. — "Widen out the end of one pipe with a taper 
wood drift, and scrape it clean inside ; scrape the end of the other pipe 
outside a little tapered, and insert it in the former : then solder it with 
common lead solder as before described ; or if required to be strong, 
rub a little tallow over, and cover the joint with a ball of melted 
lead, holding a cloth (2 or 3 plies of greased bed-tick) on the under 
side ; and smoothing over with it and the plumber's iron. 



TO DESCRIBE BfiVEL COVERS. 



25 



TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS FOR VESSELS, OR 

BREASTS FOR' CANS. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tbuesdbll, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 11. 




From as a centre, describe a circle DE larger than tlie vessel ; 
and from C as a centre, describe a circle AB the size of the vessel, then 
with the dividers the same as you described the circle the size of the 
vessel, apply them six times on the circumference of the circle larger 
than the vessel ; for can-breasts describe the circle FG the size you 
"wish for the opening of the breast. 



TO DESCRIBE PITCHED COVERS FOR PAILS, &c. 
Fig. 12. 




To cut for pitched covers, draw a circle one inch larger than the 
hoop is in diameter after burring, then draw a line from the centre to 
3 



26 



OVAL BOrLER COVER. 



I 



the circumference as in the figi^re, and one inch from the centre and 
connecting with this line draw two more lines the ends of which ^all 
be one inch on either side of the line first drawn, and then cut out 
the piece. 



TO DESCRIBE AN OVAL BOILER COVER. 

[Drawn for this ■work by L. "W. Tkuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 13. 




From C as a centre, describe a circle whose diameter will be equal 
to the width of the boiler outside of the wire, and draw the line AB 
perpendicular to the line EF, having it pass through the point D, which 
is one-half of the length of the boiler ; then mark the point J one 
quarter of an inch or more as jou wish, for the pitch of the cover, and 
apply the corner of the square on the line AB, allowing the blade to 
fall on the circle at H, and the tongue at the point J ; then draw the 
lines HB, B J, GA and AJ, which completes the description. 



TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE. 27 

TO DESCRIBE A LIP TO A MEASURE. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Teuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.3 
Or i sinal • 

Fig. 14. 




Let the circle AB represent the size of the measure ; span the divi- 
ders from K to F three-quarters of the diameter ; describe the semi- 
circle DKE ; move the dividers to G the width of the lip required, and 
describe the semicircle KPJ, which will be the lip sought. 

THE CIRCLE AND ITS SECTIONS. 

1. The Areas of Circles are to each other as the squares of their 
diameters ; any circle twice the diameter of another contains four 
times the area of the other. 

2. The Radius of a circle is a straight line drawn from the centre 
to the circumference. 

3. The Diaineter of a circle is a straight line drawn through the 
centre, and terminated both ways at the circumference. 

4. A Chord is a straight line joining any two points of the circum- 
ference. 

5. An Arc is a,ny part of the circumference. 

6. A Semicircle is half the circumference cut off by a diameter. 

7. A Segment is any portion of a circle cut off by a chord. 

8. A Sector is a part of a circle cut off by two radii. 



28 



FLARIXG VESSEL. 



TO DESCRIBE A FLARING VESSEL PATTERN, A SET OF 
PATTERNS FOR A PYRA^IID CAKE, OR AN 

ENVELOPE FOR A CONE. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Tbuesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Original. 

Fia. lo. 
3 ^^ -^ h' 




From a point G as a centre, describe a circle AB equal to the large 
circumference ; with the point F as a centre, the depth of the vessel, 
describe a circle DE equal to the small circumference ; then draw the 
lines GH and RS tangent to the circles AB and DE ; from the point 
of intersection as a centre, describe the arcs ACB and DFE ; then 
ADEB will be the size of the vessel, and three such pieces will be an 
envelope for it, and AJBTFU the altitude ; then by dividing the sector 



TO DESCRIBE THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 29 

SOH into sections AB, DE, PQ, and WX, you -will have a set of 
patterns for a pyramid cake ; and the sector AOB will be one-third of 
an envelope for a cone. 

» In allowing for locks, you must draw the lines parallel to the radii, 
as represented in the diagram by dotted lines, which will bring the 
vessel true across the top and bottom. 



TO DESCRIBE A CONE OR FRUSTUM. 

Fig. 16. 



D 



C.-" \ / \C 



\ \ 



First draw a side elevation of the desired vessel, DE, then from A 
as a centre describe the arcs CDC and GEG ; after finding the diam- 
eter of the top or large end, turn to the table of Diameters and Cir- 
cumferences, where you will find the true circumference, which you 
will proceed to lay out on the upper or larger arc CDC, making due 
allowance for the locks, wire and burr. This is for one piece ; if for 
two pieces you will lay out only one-half the circumference on the 
plate ; if for three pieces one-third ; if for four pieces one-fourth ; and 
so on for any number, remembering to make the allowance for locks, 
wire and burr on the piece you use for a pattern. 
3* 



30 



TO DESCRIBE A HEART. — CYCLOID. 



TO DESCRIBE A HEAKT. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 

Fig. 17. 




Draw an indefinite line AB ; tlien span the dividers one-fourth the 
width you wish the heart, and describe two semicircumferences AC 
and CB ; span the dividers from A to B, the width of the heart, and 
describe the lines AD and BD, which completes the description. 



CYCLOID. 

Fig. 18. 




A B 

Cycloid, a curve much used in mechanics. It is thus formed : — 

If the circumference of a circle be rolled on a right line, beginning 

at any point A, and continued till the same point A arrive at the 

line again, making just one revolution, and thereby measuring out 

a straight line ABA equal to the circumference of a circle, while the 



TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLARING VESSEL. 31 

point A in the circumference traces out a curve line ACAGA : then 
this curve is called a cycloid ; and some of its properties are contained 
in the following lemma. 

If the generating or revolving circle be placed in the middle of the 
cycloid, its diameter coinciding with the axis AB, and from any point 
there be drawn the tangent CF, the ordinate CDE perpendicular to 
the axis, and the chord of the circle AD ; then the chief properties 
are these : 

The right line CD equal to the circular arc AD ; 

The cycloidal arc AC equal to double the chord AD ; 

The semi-cycloid AC A equal to double the diameter AB, and 

The tangent CF is parallel to the chord AD. 
This curve is the line of swiftest descent, and that best suited for 
the path of the ball of a pendulum. 



TO STRIKE THE SIDE OF A FLARING VESSEL. 
Fig. 19. 

T2. ^^ 





To find the radius of a circle for striking the side of a flaring ves- 
sel having the diameters and depth of side given. 

Rule. — As the difference between the large and small diameter 
is to the depth of the side, so is the small diameter to the radius 
of the circle by which it is struck. 

Example. — Suppose ABCD to be the desired vessel, with a 
top diameter of 12 inches, bottom diameter 9 inches, depth of side 
8 inches. Then as 12 — 9 = 3:8::9to the radius. 

8 X 9 = 72 -f- 3 = 24 inches, answer. 

TINNING IRON. 

Cleanse the metal to be tinned, and rub with a coarse cloth, 
previously dipped in hydrochloric acid, (muriatic acid) and then rub 
on French putty with the same clotH. French putty is made by 
mixing tin filings with mercury. 



I 



32 



TO DESCRIBE BREASTS FOR CANS. 



TO DESCRIBE BEVEL COVERS FOR VESSELS, OR 
BREASTS FOR CANS. 
Fig. 20. 




Construct a right angle ADB, and from the point C, the altitude 
height you wish the breast, erect a perpendicular line F ; then on the 
line B, mark the point E one-half the diameter of the can ; and on the 
line F, mark the point G one-half the diameter of the opening in the 
top of breast ; draw a line N to pass through the points E and G pro- 
du-ced until it intersects the line A ; place one foot of the dividers at 
the point of intersection H, and place the other on the point E, and 
describe the circle EIK ; span the dividers from the point H to point 
G, and describe the circle GLM ; then span the dividers from the 
point D to E, and step them six times on the circle EIK, which gives 
the size of the breast. Remember to mark the lines for the locks 
parallel with the radii. 

A GOOD SOLDER. 

Take 1 lb. of pure Banca tin, and melt it, then add half a pound 
of clean lead, and when it is melted, stir the mixture gently with a 
stick or poker, and pour it out into solder strips. 



TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE. 



33 



TO FIND THE CENTRE OF A CIRCLE FROM A PART 
OF THE CIRCUMFERENCE. 

[Drawn for this work by L. W. Truesdell, Tinman, Owego, N. Y.] 
Or-i e;ina»l • 

Fig. 21. 
Span the dividers any distance you wish, and place one foot on the 
circumference AB, and describe the semicircumferences CD, EF, GH, 
and IK, and through the points of their intersection PQ and RS, 
draw two indefinite lines LM and NO ; the point of their intersection 
T, will be the centre desired. 




34 



TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTU3I OF A CONE, 



SECTOR, FOR OBTAIXIXG ANGLES. 
Fig. 22. 




Sector, a portion of a circle compreliended between any two 
radii and their intercepted arcs. — Similar Sectors are those whose 
radii include equal angles. 

To find the area of a sector. Say as 360° is to the degrees, &c., 
in the arc of the sector, so is the area of the whole circle to the area 
of the sector. Or multiply the radius by the length of the arc, and 
half the product will be the area. 



TO CONSTRUCT THE FRUSTUM OT A CONE. 

Form of flat Plate by which to construct any Frustum of a Cone, 

Fig. 23. 




Let ABCD represent the required frustum ; continue the lines 
AD and BC until they meet at E ; then from E as centre, with the 
radius EC, describe the arc CH ; also from E, with the radius 
EB, describe the arc BI ; make BI equal in length to twice AGB, 
draw the line EI, and BCIH is the form of the plate as required. 



STRIKING OUT A CONE. 



35 



RULE FOR STRIKING OUT A CONE OR FRUSTUM. 
Fia. 24. 




In a conical surface, there may be economy, sometimes, in having 
the slant height 6 times the radius of base. For a Circle may be 
wholly cut into conical surfaces, if the angle is 60°, 30°, 15°, &c. 

But there is a greater simplicity in cutting it, when the angle ia 
60°. For instance, take AC equal to the slant height, describe an 
indefinite arc AO ; with the same opening of the dividers measure 
from A to B ; draw BC and we have the required sector. This 
would make the angle C equal 60°. This angle may be divided 
into two or four equal parts, and we should thus have sectors whose 
angle would be 30° or 15°, which would not make the vessel very 
flaring. The accompanying figure gives about the shape of the flar- 

FiG. 25. 




ing vessel when the angle of the sector is 30° 



TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A PYRAMID OR CONE. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter of the base by itself, and this pro- 
duct by the height, then take one-third of this product for the con- 
tents ; to obtain gallons, divide the last result by 231. 

Example. — Required the cubic inches of a Cone whose base is 8 
inches diameter, and height 18 inches. 

8 X 8 = Gl X 18 = 1152 -7- 3 = 354 cubic inches, h- 231 = 1 gall. 2^^^ quiirls. 



36 CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF A FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 



HIPPED ROOFS, MILL HOPPERS, &c. 

To find the various Angles and proper Dimensions of Materials 
whereby to construct any figure whose form is the Frustum of a 
proper or inverted Pyramid, as Hipped Roofs, Mill Hoppers, ^c. 
Fig. 26. 

D C 



^ 


^ 


r 










.K/ 


m 




A/\ 






/R 




t 



Let ABCD be the given dimensions of plan for a roof, the height 
RT also being given ; draw the diagonal AR, meeting the top or 
ridge Rs on plan ; from R, at right angles with AR and equal to 
the required height, draw the line RT ^ then TA , equal the length of 
the struts or corners of the roof; from A, with the distance AT", 
describe an arc TZ, continue the diagonal AR until it cuts the- arc 
DZ, through which, and parallel with the ridge Rs, draw the line 
m n, which determines the required breadth for each side of the 
roof: from A, meeting the line m n, draw the line Ao, or proper 
angle for the end of each board by which the roof might require to 
be covered ; and the angle at T is what the boards require to be made 
in the direction of their thickness, when the corners or angles re- 
quire to be mitred. 



CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF THE FRUSTUM OF A CONE. 
Figs. 27, 28, 29. 




To find the Contents in Gallons of a Vessel, whose diameter is 
larger at one end than the other, such as a Bowl, Pail, Fii?kin, 
Tub, Coffee-pot, &c. 

Rule. — ^Multiply the larger diameter by the smaller, and to th^ 



CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF SQUARE VESSELS. 



37 



product add one-third of the square of their difference, multiply by 
the height, and multiply that product by .0034 for Wine Gallons, and 
by .002785 for Beer. 

Example. — Required the contents of a Coffee-pot 6 inches diameter 
at the top, 9 inches at the bottom, and 18 inches high. 



large diameter 9 
small do. 6 


brought 


up 1026 
.0034 


54 

J of the square 3 

57 
height 18 

456 
57 


4104 
3078 

3.4884 Wine Gallons, 
or nearly 3i gallons. 



Carried up 1026 

1026 multiplied by .002785 equal 2.8574 Beer Gallons, 



RULE TO FIND THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF ANY 
SQUARE VESSEL. 

Rule. — ^Take the dimensions in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch, multiply the length, breadth, and height together, and then 
multiply the product by .004329 for Wine Gallons, and by .003546 
for Ale Gallons. 

Example. — How many Wine Gallons will a box contain that is 10 
feet long, 5 feet wide, and 4 feet deep. 



Length in inches, 
Breadth in do. 



Height in inches, 



120 
60 

7200 
48 

57600 
28800 

Carried up, 345600 
4 



brought up 345600 
.004329 



3110400 
691200 
1036800 
1382400 



1496.102400 gallons. 
or 1496 galls, and 81 gills. 



38 CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 

CONTENTS IN GALLONS OF CYLINDRICAL VESSELS. 

Rule. — Take the dimensions, in inches and decimal parts of an 
inch. Square the diameter, multiply it by the length in inches, and 
then multiply the product by .0034 for Wine Gallons, or by .002785 
for Ale Gallons. 

Example. — How many U. S. Gallons will a Cylindrical Vessel con- 
tain, whose diameter is 9 inches, and length 9 J inches ? 

Diameter, 9 brought up 769.5 

9 .0034 



Square Diam, 81 
Length, 9.5 


30780 

23085 




405 
729 


2.61630 
or 2 gallons and 5 pints 


Carried up. 


769.5 





TO ASCERTAIN THE WEIGHTS OF PIPES OF VARIOUS 
METALS, AND ANY DIAMETER REQUIRED. 



Thickness in 








parts of an 


Wrought iron. 


Copper. 


Lead. 


inch. 








1-32 


•326 


Hi lbs. plate -38 


2 lbs. lead -483 


1-16 


•653 


23^ "^^ '76 


4 '' -967 


3-32 


•976 


35 " 1-14 


5i ^' 1-45 


1-8 


1-3 


46i " 1-52 


8 '' 1-933 


5-32 


1-627 


58 . '' 1-9 


9J -^ 2-417 


3-16 


1-95 


70 '' 2-28 


11 " 2-9 


7-32 


2-277 


80J " 2-66 


13 " 3-383 


1-4 


2-6 


93 '^ 304 


15 ^' 3.867 



Rule. — To the interior diameter of the pipe, in inches, add the thickness 
of the metal ; multiply the sum by the decimal numbers opposite the re- 
quired thickness and under the metaFs name ; also by the length of the 
pipe in feet, and the product is the weight of the pipe in lbs. 

1. Required the weight of a copper pipe whose interior diameter is 7i 
incheS; its length 6^ feet, and the metal 1-8 of an inch in thickness. 

7-5 + -125 = 7-625 X 1-52 X 6-25 = 72-4 lbs. 

2. What is the weight of a leaden pipe 18J feet in length, 3 inches in- 
terior diameter, and the melal 5 of an inch in thickness ? 

3 + ^25 = 3-25 X 3-867 X 18-5 = 232-5 lbs. 



TIN PLATES. QUANTITY OF TIN FOR CANS. 



39 



TIN PLATES. 



Size, 


Length, Breadth, and Weight, 


Bband'Mark. 


No. of 
Sheets 
in Box. 


Length and 
Breadth. 


•Weight per 
Box. 








Inches. Inches. 


C^ 


.qr. lbs. 




1 c 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





" 


Ix 


225 


14 by 10 


1 


1 




1 XX 
1 XXX 

1 xxxx 


225 
225 
225 


14 Dy 10 
14 by 10 
14 by 10 


1 

1 
1 


1 21 

2 14 

3 7 


1 Each Ix advances 
r $1.75 to $2.00 


1 xxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 







1 xxxxxx 


225 


14 by 10 


2 


21 




DC 


100 


17 by 124 





3 14 


«? s'p s 


D X 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


14 


't%K 


D XX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


1 7 


W ..M CO 


D XXX 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


2 


>>a,«J r- 


D xxxx 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


2 21 


^ro-g 


D xxxxx 


100 


17 by 124 


1 


3 14 


> 5 a; ^ 
*j ex's tn 


D xxxxxx 


100 


17 by 124 


2 


7 


S D C 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


1 27 


S"i2g§ 


S D X 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


2 20 


feg rt_o-s 


SDxx 


200 


15 by 11 


1 


3 13 


"^^"^ 


S D XXX 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


6 


gllsi 


S D XXXX 


200 


15 by 11 


2 


27 


11 §5 2 


S D xxxxx 
S D xxxxxx 


200 
200 


15 by 11 
15 by 11 


2 1 20 
2 2 13 

about 


=3 o." " 

5 £ S fe s 


TTT Taggers, 


225 


14 by 10 


1 





*-• 2 ^ Q> 


IC 


225 


12 by 12 


' 






1 X 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XX 


225 


12 by 12 








1 XXX 


225 


12 by 12 








1 xxxx 


225 


12 by 12 






About the same weight 


1 c 


112 


14 by 20 


> 




^per Box, as the plates 
above of similar brand. 


1 X 
1 XX 


112 
112 


14 by 20 
14 by 20 






14 by 10. 


1 XXX 


112 


14 by 20 








I xxxx 


112 


14 by 20 


- 






Leaded or\\ C 
Ternes \\ x 


112 
112 


14 by 20 
14 by 20 


1 
1 




1 


\ For Roofing. 



OIL CANISTERS, (from2^ to \2o galls.) V^YTH THE QUANTITY 
AND QUALITY OF TIN REQUIRED FOR CUSTOM WORK. 



Galls. 


Quantity and Quality. 


Galls. 

33 


Quantity and Quality. 


24 


2 Plates, I X in body. 


134 Plates, IX in body, 3 


34 


2 « S DX " 




breadths high. 


64 


2 <« DX « 


45 


134 Plates^SDXinbody. 


8 


4 « IX 


60 


134 *' D X ** 


10 


34 « DX " 


90 


15i «' D X " • 


15 


4 « DX " 


125 


20 " D X " 



• The bottom tier of plates to be placed lengthwise. 



40 WEIGHT OF WATER AND DECIMAL E'CeUIVALEN'TS. 



WHCtHT or WATEPw. 



cubic inch . , 

CI-::: ::::hes 



1 
1 
1. 

So.; 
1 

12 
1 
1 

9, 

45. 

11 

224 

13, 
OPS 



:-cli 



2S: 
64 
2 



CyliL:::::;; 

CVlinho:^ 

2CVlii::;ri:-. 

CVlin::r:::. 

United 5::; 
Uaite'd St a 

Centre of pr 



L5 equal to .^ 


)361 


' pounds. 


is equal to .434 


pounds. 


IS equal to 62.5 


pjunds. 


15 e-jual to 7.50 


U. S. gallons. 


LS equal to 112.';") 


pounds. 


IS equal to 224' ' " ' 


r ounds. 


L5 equal to 


:: ounds. 


s eou'^l to 


-XI. 


pounds. 


s e :/.;■:/. tj ■±.:\^^ 


ij 


pounds. 


.5 e:,ua: to ^:.' 




U. S. Gallons. 


5 eoua: -.; 11-, > 


"j 


P'junds. 


s e :. ua. tc uij4'_'.' 


Ij 


pounds. 


; e: '-la: t:^ 111',' 


'■J 


pounds. 


- e : ual to IL' !'_',' 


';' 


pounds. 


' ; _,_',' 


'■j 


pounds. 


--..-:; 1--; ' 


1 ) 


pounds. 


It tw.>Lii:rli :. 




- surface. 



DECIMAL EQUTVALEXTS TO THE FRACnOXAL PAETS 

OF A GALLON, OR -iX' I^'CH. 

[The Inch, or Gallon, being divided into 32 parts.] 





Gi".:-. 


i 


= 




Gi".::- 


E 


4 


^ 


..:..., 


'^iK' 


i 


1 


5* 


.03125 


1-32 


1 


i ^ 


.375 


3-S 


12 


3 


u 


.71875 


23-32 


23 


5| 


7 


.0625 


1-16 


2 


^ i 


.40625 


13-32 


13 


3i 


n 


.75 


3-4 


24 


6 


3 


.09375 


3-32 


3 


1 f 


.4375 


7-16 


14 


3^ 


i| 


.7S125 


25-32 


25 


^ 


3^ 


.125 


1-S 


4 


1 h 


.46S75 


15-32 


15 


35 


i:- 


.S125 


13-16 


26 


6^ 


3 + 


.15625 


5-32 


D 


1+ t 


.5 


1-2 


16 


4 


2 


.S4375 


27-32 


27 


6J 


31 


.1S75 


3-16 


6 


H 5 


.53125 


17-32 


17 


H 


Oi 


.S75 


7-5 


25 


7 


3^ 


.21S75 


7-32 


7 


n I 


.5625 


9-16 


IS 


U 


■^ 


.90625 


29-32 


29 


-+ 


3* 


.25 


1-4 


■i 


2 1 


.59375 


19-32 


19 


4| 


oa 


.9375 


15-16 


30 


n 


3| 


.2S125 


9-32 


9 


2+ U 


.625 


5-S 


20 


5 


2* 


.96575 


31-32 


31 


n 


3fr 


.3125 


5-16 


10 


2^ 14 


.65625 


21-32 


21 


5+ 


2j 


1.000 


1 


32 


8 


4 


.34375 


11-32 


11 


2|lf 


.6575 


11-16 


22 


54 


0.1 

"4 













APPLTCATIOX. Requ'red the ^jHcru in ?: 



1 vesse. 



cim^: of a z- 

wh'-h 's •62-' 

cr 2 1-2 qua 

INCHES 

the above Tab'e 

to v,-;-::: is 2':-i2 



To r 



lU:e: to 
. cDoosiie 



; o: an nicn. 



A. TABLE 

CONTAINING THE 

DIAMETERS, CIRCUMFERENCES, AND AREAS 
OF CIRCLES, 

AND THE 

CONTENT OF EACH IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 
TJTILIX-^r OF TKCB T-A-BXiB. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being ^t;e 
inches ? 

In the column of circumferences opposite the given diameter, 
stands 15*708* inches, the circumference required. 

2. Required the capacity, in gallons, of a can the diameter being 
6 feet and depth 10 feet ? 

In the fourth column from the given diameter stands 211.4472* 
being the content of a can 6 feet in diameter and 1 foot in depth, 
"which being multipled by 10 gives the required content, two thou- 
sand one hundred fourteen and a half gallons. 

3. Any of the areas in feet multiplied by .03704, the product equal 
the number of cubic yards at 1 foot in depth. 

4. The area of a circle in inches multiplied by the length or thick- 
ness in inches, and by .263, the product equal the weight in pounds 
of cast iron. 

* See opposite page (page 40) for Decimal Equivalents to the Fractional parts 
of a Gallon, and an Inch. 



4« 



42 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES, AND 
THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 FOOT IN DEPTH. 

{^Area in Inches."] 



Diam 



1 in. 

i 



2 m. 



I 

7 
8 

3 in. 

i. 



. .8 

4 in. 



1 

- 8 

5 in. 

t 



^ 8 

€in. 



Circ. in. 



31416 
3-5343 
3 9270 
4-3197 
4-7124 
5-1051 
5-4978 
5-8905 
6-2832 
6 6759 
7-0686 
74613 
7-8540 
8-2467 
8-6394 
90321 
9-4248 
9-8175 
10-210 
10-602 
10 995 
11-388 
11-781 
12173 
12-566 
12-959 
13351 
13-744 
14-137 
14-529 
14-922 
15-315 
15-708 
16-100 
16-493 
16-886 
17-278 
17-671 
18-064 
18-457 
18-849 
19-242 
19635 
20-027 



Area. in. 



•7854 
•9940 
1-2271 
1-4848 
1-7671 
20739 
2-4052 
2-7611 
3-1416 
3-5465 
3-9760 
4-4302 
4-9087 
5-4119 
5-9395 
6-4918 
7-0686 
7-6699 
8.2957 
8-9462 
9-6211 
10-320 
11-044 
11793 
12-566 
13-364 
14-186 
15-033 
15-904 
16-800 
17-720 
18-665 
19-635 
20-629 
21-647 
22-690 
23-758 
24-850 
25967 
27-108 
28-274 
29-464 
30-679 
31-919 



Gallons. 



•04084 
•05169 
•06380 
•07717 
-09188 
•10784 
•12506 
-14357 
•16333 
•18439 
•20675 
•23036 
•25522 
•28142 
•30883 
•33753 

36754 
-39879 
•43134 
•46519 
•50029 

53664 
•57429 
-61324 
•65343 
•69493 
•73767 
•78172 
»S2701 
-87360 
-92144 
-97058 
•02102 
•07271 
-12564 
-17988 

23542 
•29220 
-35028 
•40962 
•47025 
•53213 

59531 
-65979 



Diam 



7. 

Til 

i 

8 

i 



1 

8 in. 



^ .8 

9 in. 

k 

3 



8 

10 in 

i 



1 
iAn. 

i 

k 



Circ. in. 



20-420 
20813 
21-205 
21-598 
21-991 
22-383 
22-776 
23-169 
23-562 
23-954 
24-347 
24-740 
25132 
25515 
25-918 
26-310 
26-703 
27-096 
27-489 
27-881 
28-274 
28-667 
29-059 
29-452 
29-845 
30-237 
30 630 
31-023 
31-416 
31-808 
32-201 
82 594 
32-986 
33-379 
33-772 
34-164 

34 557 
34950 

35 343 
35-735 
36-128 
36-521 
36-913 
37-306 



Area. in. 



33183 
34-471 
35-784 
37-122 
38-484 
39-871 
41-282 
42-718 
44-178 
45-663 
47173 
48-707 
50-265 
51-848 
53 456 
55-088 
56-745 
58 426 
60132 
61-862 
63617 
65-396 
67-200 
69-029 
70-882 
72-759 
74-662 
76-588 
78540 
80-515 
82516 
84-540 
86-590 
88-664 
90 762 
92-885 
95-033 
97-205 
99-402 
101-623 
103 869 
106139 
108 434 
110 753 



Gallons. 



1-72552 
1-79249 
1^86077 
1-93034 
2-00117 
207329 
2-14666 
222134 
2.29726 
2-37448 
2-45299 

2 53276 
2-61378 
2-69609 
277971 
2-86458 
2-95074 
3-03815 
3-12686 
3-21682 
3-30808 
3-40059 
3-49440 
3-58951 
3-68586 

3 78347 
3-88242 
3-98258 
4-08408 
4-18678 
4-29083 
4-39608 
4-50268 
4-61053 
4-71962 
4-82846 
4-94172 
5-05466 
5 16890 
528439 
5-40119 
5-51923 
5-63857 
5-75916 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OP CIRCLES. 



43 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES 
THE CONTENT IN GALLONS AT 1 
[Area in Feet.'] 



OF CIRCLES, AND 
FOOT IN DEPTH. 



D] 


am. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Area in ft. 


Gallons. 


Ft 


In. 


Ft. In. 




1 ft. in depth 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 




1ft. in depth 






3 If 
3 4| 


•7854 


5-8735 


4 


6 


14 


If 


15-9043 


118-9386 




1 


.9217 


6-8928 


4 


7 


14 


4f 


16-4986 


123-3830 




2 


3 8 


1-0690 


7-9944 


4 


8 


14 


7| 


171041 


127-9112 




3 


3 11 


12271 


9-1766 


4 


9 


14 


11 


17-7205 


132-5209 




4 


4 8| 


1-3962 


10-4413 


4 


10 


15 


H 


183476 


137-2105 




5 


1 5761 


11-7866 


4 


11 


15 


H 


18-9858 


142-0582 




6 


1-7671 


132150 
















7 


4 llf 


1-9689 


14 7241 


5 




15 


82 


19-6350 


146-8384 




8 


5 21 


21816 


16-3148 


5 


1 


15 


Hi 

2| 


20-2947 


151-7718 




9 


5 61 


2-4052 


17-9870 


5 


2 


16 


20-9656 


156-7891 




10 


5 9 


2 6398 


19-7414 


5 


3 


16 


5| 


21-6475 


161-8886 




11 


6 2i 


2 8852 


21-4830 


5 


4 


16 


9 


223400 


167-0674 












5 


5 


17 




230437 


172-3300 


2 




6 31 


31416 


23-4940 


5 


6 


17 


23 7583 


177-6740 


2 


1 


6 6^ 


3-4087 


25-4916 


5 


7 


17 


6| 


24-4835 


183-0973 


2 


2 


6 9f 


3 6869 


275720 


5 


8 


17 


9| 


25-2199 


188-6045 


2 


3 


7 0^ 


3-9760 


297340 


5 


9 


18 


o| 


25-9672 


1941930 


2 


4 


7 SJ 


4-2760 


32-6976 


5 


10 


18 


3| 


26-7251 


199-8610 


2 


5 


7 7 


4-5869 


34-3027 


5 


11 


18 


7| 


27-4943 


205-6133 


2 


6 


7 101 


4-9087 


36-7092 














2 


7 


8 If 
8 4.i 

8 7| 


5-2413 


39- 1964 














2 


8 


5-5850 


41 7668 


6 




18 


lOi 
U 


28 2744 


211-4472 


2 


9 


59395 


44-4179 


6 


3 


19 


30-6796 


229-4342 


2 


10 


8 10^ 


6-3049 


471505 


6 


6 


20 


4 


33 1831 


248-1564 


2 


11 


9 11 


6-6813 


49-9654 


6 


9 


21 


2| 


35-7847 


267-6122 


3 




9 5 


70686 


52-8618 


7 




21 


"J 


38-4846 


287-8032 


3 


1 


9 8i 


7-4666 


55-8382 


7 


3 


22 


H 


41 2825 


308-7270 


3 


2 


9 11| 


7 8757 


58-8976 


7 


6 


23 


61 


44-1787 


330-3859 


3 


3 


10 2I 


8-2957 


62 0386 


7 


9 


24 


4* 


471730 


352-7665 


3 


4 


10 51 
10 8i| 
10 lU 


8-7265 


65-2602 














3 


5 


9-1683 


6S 5193 


8 




25 


14 


502656 


375-9062 


3 


6 


9-6211 


73-1504 


8 


3 


25 


11 


534562 


399-7668 


3 


7 


11 3 


100846 


75-4166 


8 


6 


26 


8| 


56-7451 


4243625 


3 


8 


11 61 


10-5591 


78-9652 


8 


9 


27 


5^ 


60 1321 


449-2118 


3 


9 


11 9| 


110446 


825959 














3 


10 


12 5^ 


11-5409 


86 3074 


9 




28 


34 


636174 


475-7.563 


3 


11 


12 3i 


120481 


901004 


9 


3 


29 


n 


67-2007 


502-5536 










9 


6 


29 


lOi^ 


70-8823 


5300861 


4 




12 6| 


12-5664 


93 9754 


9 


9 


30 


n 


74-6620 


558 3522 


4 


1 


12 9 J 


13-0952 


97-9310 














4 


2 


13 1" 


13-6353 


101-9701 


10 




31 


5 


78-5400 


587 3534 


4 


3 


13 4^ 


14- 1862 


103 0.300 


10 


3 


32 


n 


82-5160 


617-0S76 


4 


4 


13 7;i 


14-7479 


110 2907 


10 


6|32 


m 


86-5903 


647-5568 


4 


5 


13 lO.i 


15-3206 


114 5735 


10 


9|33 


9 il 90-7627 


678-2797 



44 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam. 



Ft. In. 
11 



11 
11 
11 

12 
12 



Circ. Area in ft. 



In. 



Gallons. 



Diam. Circ. Area in ft. 



] fl. in depth Ft. In. Ft. 

95-0334 710-6977 21 165 

4' 99-4021 1 743-3686 21 3 66 



In.' 1ft. in depth 

11# 346-3614 2590 2290 



Gallons. 



9 354-6571 
64 363-0511 
36 105108-4342, 810 9143 21 9 68 3^371-5432 



Ij 103-8691 1 776-7746 21 6 67 



37 8fl 113-0976 j 8481890; 22 69 

38 5|l 117-85901 881-3966 22 3 69 
12 6|39 3^122 7187; 917 7395 22 6 70 
12 9 40 Of 127-6765 1 954-8159 22 9 71 



13 

13 3 

13 6 

13 9 

14 

14 3 
14 6 
14 9 



40 10 132-7326 992-6274 123 

41 74 137 8S67;l031-1719i-23 

42 4J 143-1391 i 1070-4514 23 

43 2ii 148-4896 1 1103-0645 23 



43 11^153-9384 1151-2129 

44 9i 159-4852 1192-6940 

45 6| 165-1303 1234 9104 

46 4 170-8735 1277 8615 



15 47 14: 176-7150 1321-5454 

15 347 10|^; 182 6545 1365-9634 

15 6 48 8^;188 6923 1407-5165 

15 949 5|; 194-8282 1457-0032 



24 
24 
24 
24 

25 
25 
25 



16 50 31-201-0624 1 1503-6250 26 

16 3 51 0.4 207 3946 1550-9797 26 

16 6j51 10 213-8251 1599.0696 26 

16 9 52 7| 220-3537 1647-8930, ,26 



17 
17 
17 
17 

18 
18 
18 

18 

19 
19 

19 
19 



53 
3 54 



4|' 226 9806:1697-4516 
2^ 233 7055 1747-7431 



6 54 llf 240-5287,1798 7698 
9 55 9^247-4500 11850-5301 



27 
27 
27 
27 



56 
3 57 



6J 254-4696 '1903-0254 -28 
4 261-5872 1956-2537 28 



58 If 268 8031,2010 2171,28 

58 10||2761171j2064 9140 |28 

59 8i-2S3-.5294 2120-3462 29 

60 5f 291-0397 2176-51131:29 

61 " 



3i 298-6483 2233 2914 29 
9 62 04 306-3550 2291-0452 29 



20 62 9f 314-1600 2349-4141! 30 

20 3 63 7| 322 0630 24085159 30 

20 6 64 4j 330-0643 2468-352S 30 

20 9,65 2i 338- 1637 2528 9233 30 



If 3801336 

10| 388-8220 

Si 397-6087 

5#, 406-4935 



72 3 415-4766 

3;73 04 424-5577 

6 73 9J 433-7371 
9 74 



2652-2532 
27150413 

2778-5486 

2842-7910 
2907-7664 
2973-4889 
3039-9209 

3107-1001 
3175-0122 
3243-6595 
3313 0403 



75 4|U52-3904 3383-1563 

76 2i 461-8642 3454-0051 
6 76 ll|.471-4363 35255929 
9 77 9 1481-1065 3597-9068 



78 61^490-8750 
3 79 3§, 500-7415 
680 1^510-7063 



3670-9596 
3744-7452 
3819-2657 



25 9 80 10| 520 7692 3894-5203 



81 8i 530-9304 

3182 5i 541-1896 

683 3 551-5471 
9 84 



84 

3j85 og 

6 86 4| 593-9587 

9 87 2i-; 604-8070 



9| 1572 5566 

8^ 583 2085 



'87 lli'615-7536 

3 83 9~. 626-7982 

6 89 6| 637-9411 

9|90 3|| 649-1821 

191 1^660-5214 

3 91 lOf 671-9587 

6 92 8^ 683-4943 

9 93 54 695-1280 

'94 2J 706-8600 

3 95 of: 718-6900 

6 95 91 730-6183 

9 96 7i 742-6447 



3970-5098 
4047-2322 
4124-6898 
4202-9610 

4281-8072 
4361-4664 
4441-8607 
4522-9886 

4604-8517 
4686-4876 
4770-7787 
4854 8434 

4939-6432 
5025-1759 
5111-44S7 
5198-4451 

5286-1818 
5374-6512 
5463-8558 
5553-7940 



CAPACITY OP CANS IN GALLONS. 



45 



CAPACITY OF CANS ONE INCH DEEP. 

UTILITY OF THE TABLE. 

Required the contents of a vessel, diameter 6 7-10^/is inches, depth 10 inches ? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 6 and 7-lOths inches diameter contains 
.15 (hundredths) of a gallon, then .15 X 10 = 1-50 or 1 gallon and 2 quarts. 

Required the contents of a can, diameter 19 8-lOths inches, depth 30 inches ? 

By the table a vessel 1 inch deep and 19 and S-Wths inches diameter contains 
1 gallon and .33 (hundredths), then 1.33 X 30 = 39.90 or nearly 40 gallons. 

Required the depth of a can whose diameter is 12 and 2-10^^5 inches, to con- 
tain 16 gallons. 

By the table, a vessel 1 inch deep and 12 and 2-\0ths inches diameter contains 
.50 (hundredths of a gallon), then 16 -~ .50 = 32 inches the depth required, viz : 
.50 ) 16 ( 32 X .50 = 16 gallons. 



Diam- 




1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


eter. 




T^ 


T^ 


To- 


TOT 


T% 


To" 


IF 


TU- 


TIT 


3 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.03 


.04 


.04 


.04 


.04 


.05 


4 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.05 


.06 


,06 


.07 


.07 


.07 


.08 


5 


.08 


.08 


.08 


.09 


.09 


.10 


.10 


.11 


.11 


.11 


6 


.12 


.12 


.12 


,13 


.13 


.14 


.14 


.15 


.15 


.16 


7 


.16 


.17 


.17 


.18 


.18 


.19 


.19 


.20 


.20 


.21 


8 


.21 


,22 


.22 


.23 


.23 


.24 


.25 


.25 


.26 


.26 


9 


.27 


.28 


.28 


.29 


.30 


,30 


.31 


.31 


.32 


.33 


10 


.34 


.34 


.35 


.36 


.36 


.37 


.38 


.38 


.39 


.40 


11 


.41 


.41 


.42 


.43 


.44 


.44 


.45 


.46 


.47 


.48 


12 


.48 


.49 


.50 


.51 


.52 


.53 


.53 


.54 


.55 


.56 


13 


.57 


.58 


.59 


,60 


.60 


.61 


.62 


.63 


.64 


.65 


14 


.66 


.67 


.68 


.69 


.70 


.71 


.72 


.73 


.74 


.75 


15 


.76 


.77 


.78 


.79 


.80 


.81 


.82 


,83 


.84 


.95 


16 


.87 


.88 


.89 


.90 


.91 


.92 


.93 


.94 


.95 


.97 


17 


.98 


.99 


1.005 


1.017 


1.028 


1.040 


1.051 


1.063 


1.075 


1.086 


18 


1.101 


1.113 


1.125 


1.138 


1.150 


1.162 


1.170 


1.187 


1.200 


1.211 


19 


1.227 


1.240 


1.253 


1.266 


1.279 


1.292 


1.304 


1317 


1.330 


1.343 


20 


1.360 


1.373 


1.385 


1.400 


1.414 


1.428 


1.441 


1.455 


1.478 


1.482 


21 


1.499 


1.513 


1.527 


1.542 


1.5.56 


1.570 


1.585 


1.600 


1.612 


1,630 


22 


1.645 


1.660 


1.675 


1.696 


1,705 


1.720 


1.735 


1750 


1.770 


1.780 


23 


1.798 


1.814 


1.830 


1.845 


1.861 


1.876 


1.892 


1.908 


1.923 


1.940 


24 


1.9.58 


1.974 


1.991 


2.007 


2.023 


2.040 


2.056 


2.072 


2.096 


2.105 


25 


2.125 


2.142 


2.159 


2.176 


2.193 


2.210 


2227 


2.244 


2.261 


2.280 


26 


2.298 


2.316 


2.333 


2..351 


2..369 


2.386 


2.404 


2.422 


2.440 


2.460 


27 


2.478 


2.496 


2.515 


2.533 


2.552 


2.570 


2.588 


2.607 


2.625 


2.643 


28 


2.665 


2.684 


2.703 


2.722 


2.741 


2.764 


2.780 


2.800 


2.820 


2.836 


29 


2.859 


2.879 


2.898 


2.918 


2.938 


2.958 


2.977 


2,997 


3.017 


3.036 


30 


3.060 


3.080 


3.100 


3.121 


3.141 


3.162 


3.182 


3.202 


3.223 


3.245 


31 


3.267 


3.288 


3.309 


3.330 


3.351 


3.372 


3.393 


3414 


3.436 


3.457 


32 


3.481 


3.503 


3.524 


3.543 


3.568 


3,590 


3.612 


3.633 


3.655 


3.689 


33 


3.702 


3.725 


3.747 


3.773 


3.795 


3.814 


3.837 


3 860 


3.882 


3.904 


34 


3.930 


3.953 


3.976 


4.003 


4.022 


4.046 


4.070 


4.092 


4.115 


4.140 


35 


4.165 


4.188 


4.212 


4.236 


4.260 


4.284 


4307 


4.331 


4.355 


4.380 


36 


4.406 


4.430 


4.455 


4.483 


4.503 


4.528 


4,. 553 


4 577 


4.602 


4.626 


37 


4.6.54 


4.679 


4.704 


4.730 


4.755 


4.780 


4.805 


4.834 


4.855 


4.880 


38 


4.909 


4.935 


4.961 


4.987 


5.012 


5.038 


5.064 


5.090 


5.120 


5.142 


39 


5.171 


5.197 


5.224 


5.250 


5,277 


5.304 


5 330 


5.357 


5.383 


5.410 


40 


5.440 


5.467 


5.491 


5.521 


5.548 


5.576 


5.603 


5.630 


5.657 


5.6«4 



46 CRYSTALLIZED TIN-PLATE. 



CRYSTALLIZED TIX-PLATE. 

Crystallized tin-plate, is a yariegated primrose appearance, pro- 
duced upon the surface of tin-plate, by applying to it in a heated state 
some dilute nitro-muriatic acid for a few seconds, then washing it with 
water, drying, and coating it with lacker. The figures are more or 
less beautiful and diyersified, according to the degree of heat, and 
relative dilution of the acid. Place the tin-plate, slightly heated, 
oyer a tub of water, and rub its surface with a sponge dipped in a 
liquor composed of four parts of aquafortis, and two of distilled water, 
holding one part of common salt or sal ammoniac in solution. TVhen- 
eyer the crystalline spangles seem to be thoroughly brought out, the 
plate must be immersed in water, washed either with a feather or a 
little cotton (taking care not to rub off the film of tin that forms the 
feathering), forthwith dried with a low heat, and coated with a lacker 
Tarnish, otherwise it loses its lustre in the air. If the whole surface 
is not plunged at once in cold water, but if it be partially cooled by 
sprinkling water on it, the crystallization will be finely yariegated 
with large and small figures. Similar results will be obtained by 
blowing cold air through a pipe on the tinned surface, while it is just 
passing from the fused to the solid state. 



TDs^NING. 

1. Plates or vessels of brats or copper, boiled with a solution of 
stannate of potassa, mixed with turnings of tin, become, in the 
course of a few minutes, covered with a firmly attached layer of pure 
tin. — 2. A similar effect is produced by boiling the articles with tin 
filings and caustic alkali, or cream of tartar. In the above way, 
chemical vessels made of copper or brass may be easily and perfectly 
tinned. 



NEW TIXNIXG PROCESS- 

The articles to be tinned are first covered with dilute sulphuric 
acid, and when quite clean are placed in warm water, then dipped 
in a solution of muriatic acid, copper and zinc, and then plunged into 
a tin bath to which a small quantity of zinc has been added. When 
the tinning is finished, the articles are taken out and plunged into 
boiling water. The operation is completed by placing them in a very 
warm sand bath. This last process softens the iron. 



KUSTITIEN'S METAL FOR TIXNTN'O. 

Malleable iron 1 pound, heat to whiteness ; add 5 ounces regulus 
of antimony, and Molucca tin 24 pounds. 



RECEIPTS 

FOR THE USE OF 

JAPANNERS, VARNISHERS, 

BUILDERS AND MECHANICS, 

AND FOR 

OTHER USEFUL AND IMPORTANT PURPOSES 

IN THE 

PRACTICAL ARTS. 



PEACTICAL EECEIPTS. 



[The following Receipts are selected from " lire's Dictionary,'' " Cooley's Cy- 
clopedia," " Muspralt's Chemistry," and other valuable sources.] 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 

Japanning is the art of covering bodies by grounds of opaque 
colors in varnish, which may be afterwards decorated by printing 
or gilding, or left in a plain state. It is also to be looked upon in 
another sense, as that of ornamenting coaches, snuff boxes, screens, 
&c. All surfaces to be japanned must be perfectly clean, and 
leather should be stretched on frames. Paper should be stiff for 
japanning. 

The French prime all their japanned articles, the English do 
not. This priming is generally of common size. Those articles 
that are primed thus, never endure as well as those that receive the 
japan coating on the first operation, and thus it is that these 
articles of japan work that arc primed with size when they are used 
for some time, crack, and the coats of japan fly off in flakes. 

A solution of strong isinglass size and honey, or sugar candy, 
makes a good japan varnish to cover water colors on gold grounds. 

A pure white priming for japanning, for the cheap method, is 
made with parchment size, and one-third of isinglass, laid on very 
thin and smooth. It is the better for three coats, and when the last 
coat is dry, it is prepared to receive the painting or figures. Pre- 
vious to the last coat, however, the work should be smoothly polish- 
ed. When wood or leather is to be japanned, and no priming used, 
the best plan is to lay on two or three coats of varnish made of 
seed-lac and resin, two ounces each, dissolved in alcohol and 
strained through a cloth. This varnish should be put on in a warm 
place, and the work to be varnished should, if possible, be warm 
also, and all dampness should be avoided, to prevent the varnish 
from being chilled. AVhen the work is prepared with the above 
composition and dry, it is fit for the proper japan to be laid on. If 
the ground is not to be white the best varnish now to be used is made 
of shellac, as it is the best vehicle for all kind of colors. This is 
made in the proportions of the best shellac, five ounces, made into 
powder, steeped in a quart of alcohol, and kept at a gentle heat for 
two or thi-ce days and shaken frequently, after which the solution 



oO JAPANNING AND YAHNISHING. 

must be filtered through a flannel bag, and kept in a well corked bot- 
tle for use. This varnish for hard japanning on copper or tin will 
stand for ever, unless fire or hammer be used to burn or beetle it off. 
The color to be used with shellac varnish may be of any pigments 
whatever to give the desired shade, as this varnish will mix with 
any color. 

WHITE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

To form a hard, perfect white ground is no easy matter, as the 
substances which are generally used to make the japan hard, have a 
tendency, by a number of coats, to look or become dull in bright- 
ness. One white ground is made by the following composition : 
white flake or lead washed over and ground up with a sixth of its 
weight of starch, then dried and mixed with the finest gum, ground 
up in parts of one ounce gum, to half an ounce of rectified tarpentine 
mixed and ground* thoroughly together. This is to bo finely laid on 
the article to be japanned, dried, and then varnished with five or six 
coats of the followmg : two ounces of the whitest seed-lac to three 
ounces of gum-anima reduced to a fine powder and dissolved in a 
quart of alcohol. This lac must be carefully picked. For a softer 
varnish than this, a little turpentine should be added, and less of the 
gum. A very good varnish and not brittle, may be made by dis- 
solving gum-anima in nut oil, boiling it gently as the gum is added, 
and giving the oil as much gum as it will take up. The ground of 
white varnish may of itself be made of this varnish, by giving two 
or three coats of it, but when used it should be diluted with pure 
turpentine. Although this varnish is not brittle it is liable to be in- 
dented with strokes, and it will not bear to be polished, but if well 
laid on it will not need polishing afterwards ; it also takes some time 
to dry. Heat applied to all oils, however, darkens their color, 
and oil varnishes for white grow very yellow if not exposed to a fall 
clear light. 

GXTBI COPAL. 

Copal varnish is one of the very finest varnishes for japanning 
purposes. It can be dissolved by linseed oil, rendered dry by adding 
some quicklime at a heat somewhat less than will boil or decompose 
the oil by it. 

This solution, with the addition of a little turpentine, forms a 
very transparent varnish, which, when properly applied and slowly 
dried is very hard and durable. This varnish is applied to snuff 
boxes, tea boards and other utensils. It also preserves paintings 
and renders their surfaces capable of reflecting light more uniformly. 

If powdered copal be mixed in a mortar with camphor, it softens 
and becomes a coherent mass, and if camphor be added to alcohol it 
becomes an excellent solvent of copal by adding the copal well 
ground, and employing a tolerable degree of heat, having the 
vessel well corked which must have a long neck for the allowance of 
expansion, and the vessel must only be about one-fourth filled with 
the mixture. Copal can also be incorporated with turpentine, with 
one part of powdered copal to twelve parts of pure turpentine, sub- 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 51 

jected to the lieat of a sand-bath, for several days in a long necked 
mattress, shaking it frequently. 

Copal is a good varnish for metals, such as tin; the varnish 
must be dried in an oven, each coat, and it can be colored with some 
substances, but alcohol varnish will mix with any coloring matter. 
For white japans or varnishes, we have already shown that fine 
chalk or white lead was used as a basis, and the varnishes coated 
over it. 

To japan or varnish white leather, so that it may be elastic, is 
altogether a different work from varnishing or japanning wood or 
metal, or papier mache. 

For white leather oil is the principal ingredient, as it is well 
known that chalk is extensively used to give white leather its pure 
color, or speaking more philosophically, its fair colorless whiteness. 
White leather having already the basis of white varnish, it should 
get a light coat of the pure varnish, before mentioned, and dried 
well in the oven^ or a coat of the oil copal will answer very well. This 
being well dried, boiled nut oil nicely coated and successively dried, 
will make a most beautiful white varnish for leather, not liable to 
crack. This quality takes a long time to dry, and of course is more 
expensive. Coarse varnish may be made of boiled linseed oil, into 
which is added gradually the acetate of lead as a drier. This addi- 
tion must be done very cautiously as the oil will be apt to foam over. 

A better and more safe drying mixture than the mere acetate of 
lead, is, to dissolve the acetate of lead in a small quantity of water, 
neutralize the acid with the addition of pipe clay, evaporate the 
sediment to perfect dryness, and feed the oil when gently boiling 
gradually with it. 

These varnishes or japans, as far as described, have only ref- 
erence to white grounds. 

There is some nice work to be observed, and there is much in 
applying the varnishes at the right time, knowing by the eye the 
proper moment when the mixture is perfect, or when to add any in- 
gredient. These things require practice. 

BLACK GROUNDS. 

Black grounds for japans may be made by mixing ivory black 
with shellac varnish ; or for coarse work, lamp black and the top 
coating of common seedlac varnish. A common black japan may 
be made by painting a piece of work with drying oil, (oil mixed 
with lead,) and putting the work into a stove, not too hot, but 
of such a degree, gradually raising the heat and keeping it up 
for a long time, so as not to burn the oil and make it blister. 
This process makes very fair japan and requires no polishing. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

Naples asphaltum fifty pounds, dark gum-anirac eight pounds, fuse, 
add linseed oil twelve gallons, boil, add dark gum amber ten pounds, 
previously fused and boiled with linseed oil two gallons, add the 
driers, and proceed as last. Used for wood or metals. 



52 JAPA^'NING AXD VAKXISHING. 



BRUNSWICK: BL-iCK. 

1. Foreign asplialtum forty-6.Te pounds, drying oil sis gallons, 
litharge six pounds, boil as last, and thin with twenty-five gallons 
of oil of turpentine. Used for ironwork, (S:c. 2. Black pitch and 
gas tar asphaltum, of each twenty-five pounds, boil gently for five 
hours, then add linseed oil eight gallons, litharge and red lead, of 
each ten pounds, boil as before, and thin with oil of turpentine twen- 
ty gallons. Inferior to the last, but cheaper. 

BLUE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

Blue japan grounds may be formed of bright Prussian blue. 
The color may be mixed with shellac varnish, and brought to a pol- 
ishing state by five or six coats of varnish of seed-lac. The varnish, 
however, is apt to give a greenish tinge to the blue, as the varnish 
has a yellowish tinge, and blue and yellow form a green. Whenever 
a light blue is desii^ed, the purest varnish must always be used. 

SCARLET JAPAN. 

Ground vermilion may be used for this, but being so glaring it 
is not beautiful unless covered over with rose-pink, or lake, which 
have a good effect when thus used. For a very bright crimson 
ground, safflower or Indian lake should be used, always dissolved in 
the alcohol of which the varnish is made. In place of this lake, 
cannine may be used, as it is more common. The top coat of var- 
nish must always be of the white seed-lac, which has been before 
described, and as many coats given as will be thought proper ; it is 
easy to judge of this. 

YELLOW GROUNDS. 

K turmeric be dissolved in the spirit of wine and strained 
through a cloth, and then mixed with pure seed-lac varnish, it makes 
a good yellow japan. Saffron will answer for the same purpose in 
the same way, but the brightest yellow ground is made by a primary 
coat of pure crome yellow, and coated successively with the varnish. 

Dutch phik is used for a kind of cheap yellow japan ground. If 
a little dragon's blood be added to the varnish for yellow japan, a 
most beautiful and rich salmon-colored varnish is the result, and by 
these two mixtua^es all the shades of flesh-colored japans are produced. 

GREEN JAPAN GROUNDS. 

A good green may be made by mixing Prussian blue along with 
the cremate of lead, or with turmeric, or orpiment, (sulphuret of 
arsenic) or ochi'e, only the two should be ground together and dis- 
solved in alcohol and applied as a ground, then coated with four or 
five coats of shellac varnish, in the manner already described. A 
very bright green is made by laying on a ground of Dutch metal, or 
leaf of ^old, and then coating it over with distilled verdigris dissolved 
in alcohol, then the varnishes on the top. This is a splendid green, 
brilliant and glowing. 



JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 53 



OEANGE COLORED GROUNDS. 

Orange grounds may be made of yellow mixed with vermilion 
or carmine, just as a bright or rather inferior color is wanted. The 
yellow should always be in quantity to make a good full color, and 
the red added in proportion to the depth of shade. If there is 
not a good full body of yellow, the color will look watery, or bare, as 
it is technically termed. 

PURPLE JAPAN GROUNDS. 

This is made by a mixture of lake and Prussian blue, or o-ar- 
mine, or for an inferior color vermilion, and treated as the foregoing. 
When the ground is laid on and perfectly dried, a fine coat of pure 
boiled nut oil then laid on and perfectly dried, is a good method to 
have a japan, not liable to crack. But a better plan is to use 
this oil in the varnish given, the first coat, after the ground is laid 
on, and which should contain considerable of pure turpentine. In 
every case where oil is used for any purpose for varnish, it is all the 
better if turpentine is mixed with it. Turpentine enables oils to 
mix with either alcohol or water. Alkalies have this property also. 

BLACK JAPAN. 

1, Asphaltum three ounces, boiled oil four quarts, burnt umber 
eight ounces. Mix by heat, and when cooling thin with turpentine. 
2. Amber twelve ounces, asphaltum two ounces ; fuse by heat, add 
boiled oil half a pint, resin two ounces ; when cooling add sixteen 
ounces oil of turpentine. Both are used to varnish metals. 

JAPAN BLACK FOR LEA.THER. 

1. Burnt umber four ounces, true asphaltum two ounces, boiled 
oil two quarts. Dissolve the asphaltum by heat in a little of the oil, 
add the burnt umber ground in oil, and the remainder of the oil, 
mix, cool, and thin with turpentine. Flexible. 2. Shellac one part, 
wood naphtha four parts, dissolve, and color with lampblack. In- 
flexible. 

TRANSPARENT JAPAN. 

Oil of turpentine four ounces, oil of lavender three ounces, cam- 
phor one-half drachm, copal one ounce ; dissolve. Used to japan 
tiuy but quick copal varnish is mostly used instead. 

JAPANNERS' COPAL VARNISH. 

Pale African copal seven pounds, fuse, add clarified linseed oil one 
half gallon, boil for five minutes, remove it into the open air, add 
boiling oil of turpentine three gallons, mix well, strain it into the cis- 
tern, and cover it up immediately. Used to varnish furniture, and 
by japanners, coachmakers, &c. Dries in 15 minutes, and may bo 
polished as soon as hard. 
5* 



54 JAPANNING AND VARNISHING. 



TORTOISE SHELL JAPAN. 

THs varnisli is prepared by taking of good linseed oil one gal- 
lon, and of umber half a pound, and boiling them together until 
the oil becomes very brown and thick, when they are strained 
through a cloth and boiled again until the composition is about 
the consistence of pitch, when it is fit for use. Having prepared 
this varnish, clean well the copper or iron plate or vessel that is 
to be varnished, (japanned,) and then lay vermillion, mixed with 
shellac varnish, or with drying oil, diluted with turpentine, very 
thinly on the places intended to imitate the clean parts of the 
tortoise shell. When the vermillion is dry brush over the whole with 
the above umber varnish diluted to a due consistence with tur- 
pentine, and when it is set and firm, it must be put into a stove 
and undergo a strong heat for a long time, even two weeks will 
not hurt it. This is the ground for those beautiful snuff boxes 
and tea boards which are so much admired, and those grounds can 
be decorated with all kinds of paintings that fancy may suggest, 
and the work is all the better to be finished in an annealing 
oven* 

PAINTING JAPAN WORK. 

The colors to be painted are tempered, generally, in oil, which 
should have at least one-fourth of its weight of gum sandarach, or 
mastic dissolved in it, and it should be well diluted with turpen- 
tine, that the colors may be laid on thin and evenly. In some 
instances it does well to put on water colors or grounds of gold, 
which a skilful hand can do and manage so as to make the work 
appear as if it was embossed. These water colors are best pre- 
pared by means of isinglass size, mixed with honey, or sugar candy. 
These colors when laid on must receive a number of upper coats 
of the varnish we have described before. 

JAPANNING OLD TEA-TRATS. 

First clean them thoroughly with soap and water and a little rotten 
stone ; then dry them by wiping and exposure at the fire. Now, get 
some good copal varnish, mix with it some bronze powder, and apply 
with a brush to the denuded parts. After which set the tea-tray in 
an oven at a heat of 212*^ or 300*^ until the varnish is dry. Two coats 
will make it equal to new. 

JAPAN FINISHING. 

The finishing part of japanning lies in laying on and polishing the 
outer coats of varnish, which is necessary in all painted or simply 
ground colored japan work. When brightness and clearness are 
wanted, the white kind of varnish is necessary, for seed-lac varnish, 
which is the hardest and most tenacious, imparts a yellow tinge. 
A mixed varnish, we believe, is the best for this purpose, that is, for 
combining hardness and purity. Take then three ounces of seed-lac. 



VARNISHES. 55 

picked very carefully from all sticks and dirt and washing it well 
with cold water, stirring it up, pouring it off, and continuing the 
process until the water runs off perfectly pure. Dry it and then 
reduce it to powder, and put it with a pint of pure alcohol into a 
bottle, of which it must occupy only two-thirds of its space. This 
mixture must be shaken well together and the bottle kept at a gentle 
heat (being corked) until the lac be dissolved. When this is the 
case, the clear must be poured off, and the remainder strained through 
a cloth, and all the clear, strained and poured, must be kept in a well 
stopped bottle. The manner of using this »eed-lac varnish is the 
same as that before described, and a fine polishing varnish is 
made by mixing this with the pure white varnish. The pieces 
of work to be varnished for finishing should be placed neara 
stove, or in a warm, dry room, and one coat should be perfectly 
dry before the other is applied. The varnish is applied by proper 
brushes, beginning at the middle, passing the stroke to one end and 
with the other stroke from the middle to the other end. Great skill 
is displayed in laying on these coats of varnish. If possible the skill 
of hand should never cross, or twice pass over in giving one coat. 
When one coat is dry another must be laid over it, and so on succes- 
sively for a number of coats, so that the coating should be sufficiently 
thick to stand fully all the polishing, so as not to bare the surface of 
the colored work. When a sufficient number of coats are thus laid 
on, the work is fit to be polished, which, in common cases, is com- 
menced with a rag dipped in finely powdered rotten stone, and 
towards the end of the rubbing a little oil should be used along with 
the powder, and when the work appears fine and glossy a little oil 
should be used alone to clean off the powder and give the work a 
still brighter hue. In very fine work, French whiting should be used, 
which should be washed in water to remove any sand that might be 
in it. Pumice stone ground to a very fine powder is used for the 
first part of polishing, and the finishing done with whiting. It is 
always best to dry the varnish of all japan work by heat. For 
wood work, heat must be sparingly used, but for metals the varnish 
should be dried in an oven, also for papier mache and leather. The 
metal will stand the greatest heat, and care must be taken not to 
darken by too high a temperature. When gold size is used in gild- 
ing for japan work, where it is desired not to have the gold shine, 
or appear burnislied, the gold size should be used with a little of the 
spirits of turpentine and a little oil, but when a considerable degree 
of lustre is wanted without burnishing and the preparation neces- 
sary for it, a little of the size along with oil alone should be used. 



VARNISHES, — MISCELLANEOUS. 

Different substances are employed for making varnish, the object 
being to produce a liquid easily applied to the surface of cloth, 
paper or metal, which, when dry, will protect it with a fine skin. 



56 VARNISHES. 

Gums and resins are tlie substances employed for making varnishes ; 
they are dissolved either in turpentine, alcohol, or oil, in a close 
stone ware, glass or metal vessel, exposed to a low heat, as the case 
may require, or cold. The alcohol or turpentine dissolves the gum 
or resin, and holds them in solution, and after the application of 
the varnish, this mixture being mechanical, the moisture of the 
liquid evaporates, and the gum adheres to the article to which it is 
applied. 

The choice of linseed oil is of peculiar consequence to the varnish- 
maker. Oil from fine full-grown ripe seed, when viewed in a vial, 
will appear limpid, pale, and brilliant ; it is mellow and sweet to the 
taste, has very little smell, is specifically lighter than impure oil, and, 
when clarified, dries quickly and firmly, and does not materially 
change the color of the varnish when made, but appears limpid and 
brilliant. 



The following are the chief Resins employed in the manufacture of 
Varnishes. 



This resin is most distinguished for durability. It is usually of 
some shade of yellow, transparent, hard, and moderately tough. 
Heated in air, it fuses at about bi9^ ; it burns with a clear flame, 
emitting a pleasant odor. 

ANIME. 

This is imported from the East Indies. The large, transparent, 
pale-yellow pieces, with vitreous fracture, are best suited for var- 
nish. Inferior qualities are employed for manufacturing gold-size or 
japan-black. Although superior to amber in its capacity for drying, 
and equal in hardness, varnish made from anime deepens in color on 
exposure to air, and is very liable to crack. It is, however, much 
used for mixing with copal varnish. 



This is a gum-resin but little used in varnishes, on account of its 
costliness. 

COLOPHONY. 

This resin is synonymous with arcanson and rosin. When the 
resinous juice of Pinus sylvestris and other varieties is distUled, 
colophony remains in the retort. Its dark color is due to the action 
of the fire. Dissolved in linseed oil, or in turpentine by the aid ol 
heat, colophony forms a brilliant, hard, but brittle varnish, 

COPAL. 

This is a gum-resin of immense importance to the varnish-maker. 
It consists of several minor resins of different degrees of solubility. 



VARNISHES. 57 

In durability, it is only second to amber. When made into vamisb, 
the better sorts become lighter in color by exposure to air. 

Copal is generally imported in large lumps about the size of pota- 
toes. The clearest and palest are selected for what is called body- 
gum ; the second best forms carriage-gum ; whilst the residue, freed 
from the many impurities with which it is associated, constitutes 
worst quality i fitted only for japan-black or gold-size. 

In alcohol, copal is but little soluble ; but it is said to become 
more so by reducing it to a fine powder, and exposing it to atmos- 
pheric influences for twelve months. Boiling alcohol or spirit of 
turpentine, when poured upon/^scii copal, accomplishes its complete 
solution, provided the solvent be not added in too large proportions 
at a time. The addition of camphor also promotes the solubility of 
copal ; so likewise does oil of rosemary. 

DAMMARA. 

This is a tasteless, inodorous, whitish resin, easily soluble in oils. 
It is not so hard as mastic, with which it forms a good admixture. 



This is a resin of a yellow color, semi-transparent, and of faint 
fragrance. Of the two resins which it contains, one is crystallizable 
and soluble in cold alcohol. 



This constitutes the basis of spirit-varnish. The resin is soluble 
in strong alcohol aided by heat. Its solution in ammonia may be 
used as a varnish, when the articles coated with it are not exposed 
more than an hour or two at a time to water. 



This is a soft resin of considerable lustre. The two sorts in com- 
merce are, in tears and the common mastic ; the former is the purer 
of the tAvo. It consists of two resins, one of which is soluble in di- 
lute alcohol. With oil of turpentine, it forms a very pale varnish, 
of great lustre, which flows readily, and works easily. Moreover, it 
can be readily removed by friction with the hand ; hence its use for 
delicate work of every description. 

SANDARACn. 

This is a pale, odorous resin, less hard than lac, with which it is 
often associated as a spirit-varnish. It consists of three resins difter- 
ing as to solubility in alcohol, ether, and turpentine. It forms a 
good pale varnish for light-colored woods ; Avhen required to be 
polished, Venice turpentine is added to give it body. 

Of the solvents of these various resins, little need be said. In the 
manufacture of varnishes, great care, as well as cleanliness, arc re- 
quired. The resins should be washed in hot water, to free them from 
particles of dust and dirt ; they should be dried and assorted accord- 



58 VARNISHES. 

ing to their color, reserving the lightest shades for the best kinds of 
varnish. 

The linseed-oil should be as pale colored, and as well clarified as 
possibla New oil always contains mucilage, and more or less of 
foreign matters ; as these prevent the regular absorption of oxygen, 
the oil requires preliminary treatment. The common plan is to boil 
it with litharge ; but such oil varnish is inferior to that prepared 
with sulphate of lead. 

The best method is to rub up linseed-oil with dry sulphate of lead, 
in sufficient quantity to form a milky mixture. After a week's 
exposure to the light, and frequent shaking, the mucus deposits with 
the sulphate of lead, and leaves the oil perfectly clear. The precipi- 
tated slime forms a compact membrane over the lead, hardening to 
such an extent that the clarified oil may be readily poured off. 

TURPEXTINE. 

This is of very extensive use. The older it is, the more ozonized, 
the better it is. Turpentine varnishes dry much more readily than 
oil varnishes, are of a lighter color, more flexible and cheap. They 
are, however, neither so tough nor so durable. 

ALCOHOL, 

This is employed as the solvent of sandarach and of lac. The 
stronger, cceteris paribus, the better. 

NAPHTHA AND METHYLATED SPIRIT OF WIXE. 

These are used for the cheaper varnishes. Their smell is disagree- 
able. The former is, however, a better solvent of resins than alcohol. 

SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

These varnishes may be readily colored — red, by dragfon's blood ; 
yellow, by gamboge. If a colored varnish is required, clearly no 
account need be taken of the color of the resins. Lac varnish may 
be bleached by Mr. Lemming's process : — Dissolve five ounces of shel- 
lac in a quart of spirit of wine ; boil for a few minutes with ten 
ounces of well-burnt and recently-heated animal charcoal, when a 
small quantity of the solution should be drawn off and filtered : if not 
colorless, a little more charcoal should be added. "When all tinge is 
removed, press the liquor through silk, as linen absorbs more var- 
nish ; and afterwards filter it through fine blotting-paper. Dr. Hare 
proceeds as follows : — Dissolve in an iron kettle about one jDart of 
pearlash in about eight parts of water, add one part of shell or seed 
lac, and heat the whole to ebullition. When the lac is dissolved, cool 
the solution, and impregnate it with chlorine gas till the lac is all 
precipitatad. The precipitate is white, but the color deepens by 
washing and consolidation. Dissolved in alcohol, lac bleached by 
this process yields a varnish which is as free from color as any copal 
varnish. 

One word in conclusion with reference to all spirit varnishes. A 



VAUNTSHES. 59 

damp atmosphere is sufScient to occasion a milky deposit of resin, 
owing to the diluted spirit depositing a portion : in such case the 
varnish is said to be chilled, 

ESSENCE VAE-NISHES. 

They do not differ essentially in their manufacture from spirit 
varnishes. The polish produced by them is more durable, although 
they take a longer time to dry. 

OIL VARNISHES. 

The most durable and lustrous of varnishes are composed of a mix- 
ture of resin, oil, and spirit of turpentine. The oils most frequently 
employed are linseed and walnut ; the resins chiefly copal and 
amber. 

The drying power of the oil having been increased by litharge, 
red-lead, or by sulphate of lead, and a judicious selection of copal 
having been made, it is necessary, according to Booth, to bear in 
mind the following precautions before proceeding to the manufacture 
of varnish : — 1. That oil varnish is not a solution, but an intimate 
mixture of resin in boiled oil and spirit of turpentine. 2. That the 
resin must be completely fused previous to the addition of the boiled 
or prepared oil. 3. That the oil must be heated from 250° to 300°. 
4. That the spirit of turpentine must be added gradually, and in a 
thin stream, while the mixture of oil and resin is still hot. 5. That 
the varnish be made in dry weather, otherwise moisture is absorbed, 
and its transparency and drying quality impaired. 

The heating vessel must be of copper, with a riveted and not a 
soldered bottom. To promote the admixture of the copal with the 
hot oil, the copal — carefully selected, and of nearly uniform fusibility 
— is separately heated with continuous stirring over a charcoal fire. 
Good management is required to prevent the copal from burning or 
becoming even high colored. When completely fused, the heated 
oil should be gradually poured in with constant stirring. The exact 
amount of oil required must be determined by experiment. If a drop 
upon a plate, on cooling, assumes such a consistency as to be pene- 
trated by the nail without cracking, the mixture is complete ; but if 
it cracks, more oil must be added. 

The spirit of turpentine previously heated is added in a thin stream 
to the former mixture, care being taken to keep up the heat of all 
the parts. 

LACKER. 

This is used for wood or brass work, and is also a varnish. For 
brass, the proportions are half a pound of pale shell-lac to one gallon, 
of spirit of wine. It is better prepared without the aid of heat, by 
simple and repeated agitation. It should then be left to clear itself, 
and separated from the thicker portions and from all impurities by 
decantation. As it darkens on exposure to light, the latter should be 
excluded. It need scarcely be said that the color will be also modified 
by that of the lao employed. 



(>0 VAIiXISHES. 



1. COPAL TARXISHE3. 

1. Oil of turpentine one pint, set the bottle in a water bath, and 
add in small portions at a time, three ounces of powdered copal that 
has been previously melted by a gentle heat, and dropped into water ; 
in a few days decant the clear. Dries slowly, but is very pale and 
durable. Used fjr pictui'es, &c. 2. Pale hard copal two pounds ; 
fase, add hot drying oil one pint, boil as before directed, and thin 
with oil of turpentine three pints, or as much as sufficient. Very 
pale. Dries hard in 12 to 24 hours. 3. Clearest and palest African 
copal eight pounds ; fuse, add hot and pale drying oil two gallons, 
boil till it strings strongly, cool a little, and thin with hot rectified 
oil of turpentine three gallons, and immediately strain into the store 
can. Very fine. Both the above are used for pictures. 4. Coarsely- 
powdered copal and glass, of each four ounces, alcohol of 90 per cant 
one pint, camphor one-half ounce ; heat it in a water-bath so that the 
bubbles may be counted as they rise, observing fi^equently to stii- the 
mixture ; when cold decant the clear. Used tor pictui^es. 5. Copal 
melted and dropped into water three ounces, gum sandarach six 
ounces, mastic and Chio turpentine of each two and one-half ounces, 
powdered glass four ounces, alcohol of 85 per cent, one quart ; dis- 
solve by a gentle heat. Used for metal, chairs, &;c. 

All copal varnishes are hard and durable, though less so than 
those made of amber, but they have the advantage over the latter of 
being paler. They are applied on coaches, pictures, polished metal, 
wood, and other objects requii'ing good durable varnish. 

2. COPAL VARXISH. 

Hard copal, 300 parts ; drying linseed or nut oil, from 125 to 250 
parts ; oil of turpentine, 500 ; these three substances are to be put 
into three separate vessels ; the copal is to be fused by a somewhat 
sudden application of heat; the drying oil is to be heated to a tem- 
perature a little undar ebullition j and is to be added by small 
portions at a time to the melted copal. When this combination is 
made, and the heat a little abated, the essence of turpentine, likewise 
previously heated, is to be introduced by degrees ; some of the vola- 
tile oil will be dissipated at first, but more being added, the union 
will take place. Great care must be taken to prevent the turpentine 
vapor from catching fire, which might occasion serious accidents to 
the operator. When the varnish is made and has cooled down to 
about 130 degrees of Fah., it may be strained through a filter, to 
separate the impurities and undissolved copal. Almost all varnish 
makers think it indispensable to combine the drying oil with the 
copal before adding the oil of turpentine, but in this they are mis- 
taken. Boiling oil of turpentine combines very readily with fused 
copal; and, in some cases, it would probably be preferable to com- 
mence the operation with it, adding it in successive small quantities. 
Indeed, the whitest copal varnish can be made only in this way ; for 
if the drying oil has been heated to nearly its boiling point, it 
becomes colored, and darkens the varnish. 



VARNISHES. 61 

This varnish improYes in clearness by keeping. Its consistence 
may be varied by varying the proportions of the ingredients within 
moderate limits. Good varnish, applied in summer, should become 
so dry in twenty-four hours that the dust will not stick to it nor re- 
ceive an impression from the fingers. To render it sufficiently dry 
and hard for polishing, it must be subjected for several days to the 
heat of a stove. 

3. COPAL VARNISHES. 

1. Melt in an iron pan at a slow heat, copal gum, powdered, eight 
parts, and add balsam copaiva, previously warmed, two parts. Then 
remove from the fire, and add spirits of turpentine, also warmed be- 
forehand, ten parts, to give the necessary consistence. 2. Prepared 
gum copal ten parts, gum mastic two parts, finely powdered, are 
mixed with white turpentine and boiled linseed oil, of each one part, 
at a slow heat, and with spirits of turpentine twenty parts. 3. Pre- 
pared gum-copal ten parts, white turpentine two parts, dissolve in 
spirits of turpentine. 

Gum-copal {^prepared or made more soluble in spirits of turpentine, 
by melting the powdered crude gum, afterwards again powdering, 
and allowing to stand for some time loosely covered. 

CABINET VARNISH. 

Copal, fused, fourteen pounds ; linseed oil, hot, one gallon ; tur- 
pentine, hot, three gallons. Properly boiled, such a varnish will dry 
in ten minutes. 

TABLE VARNISH. 

Damma resin, one pound ; spirits of turpentine, two pounds ; 
camphor, two hundred grains. Digest the mixture for twenty-four 
hours. The decanted portion is fit for immediate use. 

COMMON TABLE VARNISH. 

Oil of turpentine, one pound; bees' wax, two ounces ; colophony, 
one drachm. 

COPAL VARNISH FOR INSIDE WORK. 

1. Pounded and oxidixed copal, twenty-four parts ; spirit of tur- 
pentine, forty parts ; camphor, one part. — 2. Flexible Copal Var- 
nish. Copal in powder, sixteen parts; camphor, two parts; oil of 
lavender, ninety parts. 

Dissolve the camphor in the oil, heat the latter, and stir in the co- 
pal in sucoessive portions until complete solution takes place. Thin 
with sufficient turpentine to make it of proper consistence. 

BEST BODY COPAL VARNISH FOR COACH MAKERS, &C. 

This is intended for the body parts of coaches and other similar 

vehicles, intended for polishing. Fuse eight lbs. of fine African 

gum copal, and two gallons of clarified oil, boil it very slowly for 

four or five hours, until quite stringy, mix ^ith three gallons and a 

6 



62 VARNISHES. 

half of turpentine ; strain off and pour it into a cistern. If this is 
too slow in drying, coach-makers, painters and varnish-makers have 
introduced to two pots of the preceding varnish, one made as follows : 
eight lbs. of fine pale gum-anime, two gallons of clarified oil and 
three and a half gallons of turpentine. To be boiled four hours. 

COPAL POLISH. 

Digest or shake finely powdered gum copal four parts, and gum 
camphor one part, with ether to form a semi-fluid mass, and then 
digest with a suf&cient quantity of alcohol. 

WHITE SPIRIT VAENISH. 

Sandarach, 250 parts ; mastic, in tears, 64 ; elemi resin, 32 ; 
turpentine, 64 ; alcohol of 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 
The turpentine is to be added after the resins are dissolved. This is 
a brilliant varnish, but not so hard as to bear polishing. 

WHITE HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

1. Gum sandarach five pounds, camphor one ounce, rectified spirit 
(65 over proof) two gallons, washed and dried coarsely-pounded glass 
two pounds ; proceed as in making mastic varnish ; when strained 
add one quart of very pale turpentine varnish. Very fine. 2. Picked 
mastic and coarsely-ground glass, of each, four ounces, sandarach 
and pale clear Venice turpentine, of each three ounces, alcohol two 
pounds ; as last. 3. Gum sandarach one pound, clear Strasburgh 
turpentine six ounces, rectified spirit (65 over proof) three pints ; 
dissolve. 4. Mastic in tears two ounces, sandarach eight ounces, gum 
elemi one ounce, Strasburgh or Scio turpentine (genuine) four ounces, 
rectified spirit (65 over proof) one quart. Used on metals, &c. 
Polishes well. 

WHITE VARNISH. 

1. Tender copal seven and one-half ounces, camphor one ounce, 
alcohol of 95 per cent, one quart ; dissolve, then add mastic two 
ounces, Venice turpentine one ounce ; dissolve and strain. Very 
•white, drying, and capable of being polished when hard. Used for 
toys. 2. Sandarach eight ounces, mastic two ounces, Canada balsam 
four ounces, alcohol one quart. Used on paper, wood, or linen. 

SOFT BRILLIANT VARNISH. 

Sandarach six ounces, elemi (genuine) four ounces, anime one 
ounce, camphor one-half ounce, rectified spirit one quart ; as before. 

The above spirit varnishes are chiefly applied to objects of the toil- 
ette, as work-boxes, card-cases, &c., but are also suitable to other 
articles, whether of paper, wood, linen, or metal, that require a bril- 
liant and quick-drying varnish. They mostly dry almost as soon as 
applied, and are usually hard enough to polish in 24 hours. Spirit 
varnishes are less durable and more liable to crack than oil varnishes. 



VARNISHES. 63 



BROWN HARD SPIRIT VARNISHES. 

1. Sandarach four ounces, pale seed-lac two ounces, elemi (true) 
one ounce, alcohol one quart ; digest with agitation till dissolved, then 
add Venice turpentine two ounces. 2. Gum sandarach three pounds, 
shellac two pounds, rectified spirit, (65 over proof,) two gallons ; dis- 
solve, add turpentine varnish one quart ; agitate well and strain. 
"Very fine. 3. Seed-lac and yellow resin, of each one and one-half 
pounds, rectified spirit two gallons. 

TO PREPARE A VARNISH FOR COATING METALS. 

Digest one part of bruised copal in two parts of absolute alcohol; 
but as this varnish dries too quickly it is preferable to take one part 
of copal, one part of oil of rosemary, and two or three parts of ab- 
solute alcohol. This gives a clear varnish as limped as water. It 
should be applied hot, and when dry it will be found hard and 
durable. 

TO VARNISH ARTICLES OF IRON AND STEEL. 

Dissolve 10 parts of clear grains of mastic, 5 parts of camphor, 15 
parts of sandarach, and 5 of elemi, in a sufficient quantity of alcohol, 
and apply this varnish without heat. The articles will not only be 
preserved from rust, but the varnish will retain its transparency 
and the metallic brilliancy of the articles will not be obscured. 

VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Dissolve, in about two lbs. of tar oil, half a pound of asphaltum, 
and a like quantity of pounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care 
being taken to prevent any contact with the flame. When cold the 
varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for out-door wood and iron 
work, not for japanning leather or cloth. 

BLACK VARNISH FOR IRON WORK. 

Asphaltum forty-eight pounds, fuse, add boiled oil ten gallons, red 
lead and litharge, of each seven pounds, dried and powdered white 
copperas three pounds, boil for two hours, then add dark gum amber 
(fused) eight pounds, hot linseed oil two gallons, boil for two hours 
longer, or till a little of the mass, when cooled, may be rolled into 
pills, then withdraw the heat, and afterwards thin down with oil of 
turpentine thirty gallons. Used for the ironwork of carriages, and 
other nice purposes. 

BRONZE VARNISH FOR STATUARY. 

Cut best hard soap fifty parts, into fine shavings, dissolve in boil- 
ing water two parts, to which add the solution of blue vitriol fifteen, 
parts, in pure water sixty parts. Wash the copper-soap with water, 
dry it at a very slow heat, and dissolve it in spirits of turpentine. 



64 VARNISHES. 



AMBER VARNISHES. 

1. Amber one pound, pale boiled oil ten ounces, turpentine one 
pint. Render the amber, placed in an iron pot, semiliquid by heat ; 
then add the oil, mix, remove it from the fire, and when cooled a 
a little, stir in the turpentine. 2. To the amber, melted as above, 
add two ounces of shellac, and proceed as before. 

This varnish is rather dark, but remarkably tough. The first form 
is the best. It is used for the same purposes as copal varnish, and 
forms an excellent article for covering wood, or any other substance 
not of a white or very pale color. It dries well, and is very hard 
and durable. 

AMBER VARNISH, BLACK. 

Amber one pound, boiled oil one-half pint, powdered asphaltum 
six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint. Melt the amber, as before 
described, then add the asphaltum, previously mixed with the cold 
oil, and afterwards heated very hot, mix well, remove the vessel from 
the fire, and when cooled a little add the turpentine, also made warm. 

Each of the above varnishes should be reduced to a proper con- 
sistence with more turpentine if required. The last form produces 
the beautiful black varnish used by the coachmakers. Some manu- 
facturers omit the whole or part of the asphaltum, and use the same 
quantity of clear black rosin instead, in which case the color is 
brought up by lampblack reduced to an impalpable powder, or pre- 
viously ground very fine with a little boiled oil. The varnish made 
in this way, lacks, however, that richness, brilliancy, and depth of 
blackness imparted by asphaltum. 

AMBER VARNISHES. 

1. {Pale.) Amber pale and transparent six pounds, fuse, add hot 
clarified linseed oil two gallons, boil till it strings strongly, cool a 
little, and add oil of turpentine four gallons. Pale as copal varnish ; 
soon becomes very hard, and is the most durable of oil varnishes ; 
but requires time before it is fit for polishing. When wanted to dry 
and harden quicker, *« drying " oil may be substituted for linseed, 
or ** driers ' ' may be added during the boiling. 2. Amber one pound ; 
melt, add Scio turpentine one-half pound, transparent white resin 
two ounces, hot linseed Oil one pint, and afterwards oil of turpentine 
as much as sufficient ; as above. Very tough. 3. (Hard.) Melted 
amber four ounces, hot boiled oil one quart ; as before. 4. {Pale.) 
Very pale and transparent amber four ounces, clarified linseed oil and 
oil of turpentine, of each one pint ; as before. 

Amber varnish is suited for all purposes, where a very hard and 
durable oil varnish is required. The paler kind is superior to copal 
varnish, and is often mixed with the latter to increase its hardness 
and durability. 

BLACK VARNISH. 

Heat to boiling linseed oil varnish ten parts, with burnt umber 
two parts, and powdered asphaltum one part, and when cooled dilute 
with spirits of turpentine to the required consistence. 



VARNISHES. 65 



VARNISH FOR CERTAIN PARTS OF CARRIAGES. 

Sandarach> 190 parts ; pale shellac, 95 ; resin, 125 ; turpentine, 
190 ; alcohol, at 85 per cent, 1000 parts, by measure. 

COACH VARNISH. 

Mix shellac sixteen parts, white turpentine three parts, lamp- 
black sufficient quantity, and digest with alcohol ninety parts, oil 
of lavender four parts. 

MAHOGANY VARNISH. 

Sorted gum-anime eight pounds, clarified oil three gallons, litharge 
and powdered dried sugar of lead, of each one-fourth pound ; boil till 
it strings well, then cool a little, thin with oil of turpentine five and 
one-half gallons, and strain. 

VARNISH FOR CABINET MAKERS. 

Pale shellac, 750 parts ; mastic, 64 ; alcohol, of 90 per cent, 
1000 parts by measure. The solution is made in the cold, with the 
aid of frequent stirring. It is always muddy, and is employed 
without being filtered. With the same resins and proof spirit a var- 
nish is made for the bookbinders to do over their morocco leather. 

CEMENT VARNISH FOR WATER-TIGHT LUTING. 

White turpentine fourteen parts, shellac eighteen parts, resin six 
parts, digest with alcohol eighty parts. 

THE VARNISH OF WATIN FOR GILDED ARTICLES. 

Gum-lac, in grain, 125 parts ; gamboge, 125 ; dragon's blood, 
125 ; annotto, 125 ; satfron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 
1000 parts by measure, of alcohol of 90 per cent ; two separate tinc- 
tures must be made with the dragon's blood and annotto, in 1000 
parts of such alcohol ; and a proper proportion of each should be added 
to the varnish, according to the shade of golden color wanted. 

CHEAP OAK VARNISH. 

Clear pale resin three and one-half pounds, oil of turpentine one 
gallon ; dissolve. It may be colored darker by adding a little fine 
lampblack. 

VARNISH FOR WOOD-WORK, 

Powdered gum sandarach eight parts, gum mastic two parts, 
seed-lao eight parts, and digest in a warm place for some days with 
alcohol twenty-four parts, and finally, dilute with sufficient alcohol 
to the required consistence. 

DARK VARNISH FOR LIGHT WOOD-WORK. 

Pound up and digest sliellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach thirty- 
two parts, gum mastic (juniper) eight parts, gum clcmi eight 
6* 



66 VARNISHES. 

parts, dragon's blood four parts, annotto one part, with wliit^ tur^ 
pentine sixteen parts, and alcohol two hundred and fifty-six. Di- 
lute with alcohol if required. 

TARNISH FOR INSTBUME^TS. 

Digest seed-lac one part, with alcohol se^en parts, and filter. 

TARNISH FOR THE WOOD TOTS OF SPA. 

Tender copal, 75 parts ; mastic, 12.5 ; Venice turpentine, 6.5 ; 
alcohol, of 95 per cent, 100 parts by measure ; water ounces, for 
example, if the other parts be taken in ounces. The alcohol must 
be first made to act upon the copal, with the aid of a little oil of laT- 
ender or camphor, if thought fit ; and the solution being passed 
through a linen cloth, the mastic must be introduced. After it is 
dissolved, the Venice turpentine, previously melted in a water-bath, 
should be added ; the lower the temj^erature at which these operations 
are carried on, the more beautiful will the varnish be. This varnish 
ought to be very white, very drying, and capable of being smoothed 
with pumice-stone and polished. 

VARNISHES FOR FURNITURE. 

The simplest, and perhaps the best, is the solution of shellac only, 
but many add gums sandarach, mastic, copal, arable, benjamin, &c., 
from the idea that they contribute to the efi"ect. Gum arable is cer- 
tainly never required if the solvent be pure, because it is insoluble in 
either rectified spirit or rectified wood naphtha, the menstrua em- 
ployed in dissolving the gums. As spii'it is seldom used on account 
of its expense, most of the following are mentioned as solutions in 
naphtha, but spirit can be substituted when thought proper. 

1. Shellac one and a half pounds, naphtha one gallon ; dissolve, 
and it is ready without filtering. 2. Shellac twelve ounces, copal 
three ounces, (or an equivalent of varnish) ; dissolve in one gallon of 
naphtha. 3. Shellac one and a half pounds, seed-lac and sandarach 
each four ounces, mastic two ounces, rectified spirit one gallon ; dis- 
solve. 4. Shellac two pounds, benzoin four ounces, spirit one gal- 
lon. 5. Shellac ten ounces, seed-lac, sandarach, and copal varnish 
of each, six ounces, benzoin three ounces, naphtha one gallon. 

To darken polish, benzoin and di*agon's-blood are used, turmeric 
and other coloring matters are also added ; and to make it lighter it 
is necessary to use bleached lac, though some endeavor to give 
this effect by adding oxalic acid to the ingredients, it, like gum 
arable, is insoluble in good spirit or naphtha. For all ordinary pur- 
poses the first form is best and least troublesome, while its appearance 
is equal to any other. 

TO FRENCH POLISH. 

The wood must be placed level, and sand-papered until it is quite 

smooth, otherwise it vrill not polish. Then provide a rubber of cloth, 
list, or sponge, wrap it in a soft rag, so as to leave a handle at the 
back for your hand, shake the bottle against the rubber, and in the 



VARNISHES. 67 

middle of the varnish on the rag place with your finger a little raw 
linseed oil. Now commence rubbing, in small circular strokes, and 
continue until the pores are filled, charging the rubber with yarnish 
and oil as required, until the whole wood has had one coat. When 
dry repeat the process once or twice until the surface appears even 
and fine, between each coat using fine sand-paper to smooth down all 
irregularities. Lastly, use a clean rubber with a little strong alcohol 
only, which will remove the oil and the cloudiness it causes ; whea 
the work will be complete. 

FURNITURE POLISHES. 

New wood is often French-polished. Or the following may be tried : 
Melt three or four pieces of sandarach, each the size of a walnut, 
add one pint of boiled oil, and boil together for one hour. While cool- 
ing add one drachm of venice turpentine, and if too thick a little oil 
of turpentine also. Apply this all over the furniture, and after some 
hours rub it off ; rub the furniture daily, without applying fresh var- 
nish, except about once in two months. Water does not injure this 
polish, and any stain or scratch may be again covered, which cannot 
be done with French-polish. 

FURNITURE GLOSS, 

To give a gloss to household furniture, various compositions are 
used, known as wax, polish, creams, pastes, oils, &o. The following 
are some of the forms used : 

FURNITURE CREAM. 

Bees-wax one pound, soap four ounces, pearlash two ounces, soft 
water one gallon ; boil together until mixed. 

FURNITURE OILS. 

1. Acetic acid two drachms, oil of lavender one-half drachm, 
rectified spirit one drachm, linseed oil four ounces. 2. Linseed oil 
one pint, alkanet root two ounces ; heat, strain, and add lac varnish 
one ounce, 8. Linseed oil one pint, rectified spirit two ounces, 
butter of antimony four ounces. 

FURNITURE PASTES. 

1. Bees-wax, spirit of turpentine, and linseed oil, equal parts ; 
melt and cool. 2. Bees-wax four ounces, turpentine ten ounces, 
alkanet root to color ; melt and strain. 3. Bees-wax one pound, 
linseed oil five ounces, alkanet root one-half ounce ; melt, add five 
ounces of turpentine, strain and cool. 4. Bees-wax four ounces, 
resin one ounce, oil of turpentine two ounces, Venetian red to color. 

ETCHING VARNISHES. 

1. White wax, two ounces ; black and Burgundy pitch, of each 
one-half ounce ; melt together, add by degrees powdered asphaltum 
two ounces, and boil till a drop taken out on a plate will break 
when cold by being bent double two or- three times between the fin- 



68 VARNISHES. 



gers ; it must then be poured into warm water and made into small 
balls for use. 2. {Hard Varnish.) Linseed oil and mastic, of each 
four ounces ; melt together. 3. {Soft Varnish.) Soft linseed oil, 
four ounces ; gum benzoin and white wax, of each one-half ounce ; 
boil to two-thirds. 

VAKKISH FOR ENGRAVINGS, MAPS, ETC. 

Digest gum sandarach twenty parts, gum mastic eight parts, 
camphor one part, with alcohol forty-eight parts. The map or en- 
graying must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine. 

VARNISH TO FIX ENGRAVINGS OR LITHOGRAPHS ON WOOD. 

For fixing engravings or lithographs upon wood, a varnish called 

mordant is used in France, which differs from others chiefly in contain- 
ing more Venice turpentine, to make it sticky ; it consists of sanda- 
rach, 250 parts ; mastic in tears, 64 ; rosin, 125 ; Venice turpentine, 
250 ; alcohol, 1000 parts by measure. 

VARNISHES FOB OIL PAINTINGS AND LITHOGRAPHS. 

1. Dextrine 2 parts, alcohol 1 part, water 6 parts. 2. Varnish 
for drawings and lithographs : dextrine 2 parts, alcohol J part, 
water 2 parts. These should be prepared previously with two or 
three coats of thin starch or rice boiled and strained through a cloth. 

VARNISH FOR OIL PAINTINGS. 

Digest at a slow heat gum sandarach two parts, gum mastic four 
parts, balsam copaiva two parts, white turpentine three parts, with 
spirits of turpentine four parts, alcohol (95 per cent) 50-56 parts. 

BEAUTIFUL VARNISH FOR PAINTINGS AND PICTURES. 

Honey, 1 pint; the whites of two dozen fresh hen's eggs; 1 ounce 
of good clean isinglass, 20 grains of hydrate of potassium, ^ ounce 
of chloride of sodium; mix together over a gentle heat of 80 or 90 
degrees Fah. ; be careful not to let the mixture remain long enough 
to coagulate the albumen of the eggs ; stii' the mixture thoroughly, 
then bottle. It is to be applied as follows : one table spoonful of the 
varnish added to half a table spoonful of good oil of turpentine, 
then spread on the picture as soon as mixed. 

MILK OF WAX. 

Milk of wax is a valuable varnish, which may be prepared as fol- 
lows : — Melt in a porcelain capsule a certain quantity of white wax, 
and add to it, while in fusion, an equal quantity of spirit of wine, of 
sp. gray. 0-830 ; stir the mixture, and pour it upon a large porphyry 
slab. The granular mass is to be converted into a paste by the mul- 
ler, with the addition, from time to time, of a little alcohol ; and as 
soon as it appears to be smooth and homogeneous, water is to be in- 
troduced in small quantities successively, to the amount of four times 
the weight of the wax. Thi& emulsion is to be then passed through 



VARNISHES. 69 

canvas, in order to separate such particles as may be imperfectly in- 
corporated. The milk of wax, thus prepared, may be spread with a 
smooth brush upon the surface of a painting, allowed to dry, and then 
fused by passing a hot iron (salamander) over its surface. When 
cold, it is to be rubbed with a linen cloth to bring out the lustre. It 
is to the unchangeable quality of an encaustic of this nature, that the 
ancient paintings upon the walls of Herculaneum and Pompeii owe 
their freshness at the present day. 

CRYSTAL VARNISHES. 

1. Genuine pale Canada balsam and rectified oil of turpentine, 
equal parts ; mix, place the bottle in warm water, agitate well, set it 
aside, in a moderately warm place, and in a week pour off the clear. 
Used for maps, prints, drawings, and other articles of paper, and 
also to prepare tracing paper, and to transfer engravings. 2. Mastic 
three ounces, alcohol one pint ; dissolve. Used to fix pencil drawings. 

ITALIAN VARNISHES. 

1. Boil Scio turpentine till brittle, powder, and dissolve in oil of 
turpentine. 2. Canada balsam and clear white resin, of each six 
ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve. Used for prints, &c. 

WATER VARNISH FOR OIL-PAINTINGS. 

Boil bitter-apple, freed from the seeds and cut five parts, with rain- 
water fifty parts, down to one-half. Strain and dissolve in the liquor 
gum arable eight parts, and rock-candy four parts, and lastly, add 
one part of alcohol. Let it stand for some days, and filter. 

VARNISH FOR PAPER-HANGINGS. 

Sandarach, four parts, mastic, seed-lac, white turpentine, of each 
two parts, gum elemi one part, alcohol twenty-eight parts. Digest 
with frequent shaking, and filter. Before applying this varnish, the 
paper must be twice painted over with a solution of white gelatine, 
and dried. 

book-binders' VARNISH. 

Shellac eight parts, gum benzoin three parts, gum mastic two 
parts, bruise, and digest in alcohol forty-eight parts, oil of lavender 
one-half part. Or, digest shellac four parts, gum mastic two parts, 
gum dammar and white turpentine of each one part, with alcohol 
(95 per cent) twenty-eight parts. 

to varnish cardwork. 

Before varnishing cardwork, it must receive two or three coats of 
size, to prevent the absorption of the varnish, and any injury to tlio 
design. The size may be made by dissolving a little isinglass in hot 
water, or by boiling some parchment cuttings until dissolved. In 
cither case the solution must be strained through a piece of clean 
muslin, and for very nice purposes, should be clarified with a little 



70 VARNISHES. 

white of egg. A small clean brush, called by painters a sash tool, is 
the best for applying the size, as well as the yarnislw A light deli- 
cate touch must be adopted, especially for the first coat, least the 
ink or colors be started, or smothered. 

SIZE, OR VARNISH, FOR PRINTERS, ETC. 

Best pale glue and white curd soap, of each 4 ounces ; hot water 3 
pints ; dissolve, then add powdered alum 2 ounces. Used to size 
prints and pictures before coloring them. 

VARNISH FOR BRICK WALLS. 

A yarnish made with one pound of sulphur boiled for half an hour 
in an iron vessel is a perfect protection from damp to brick walls. It 
should be applied with a brush, while warm. 

MASTIC VARNISHES. 

1. (Fine.) Very pale and picked gum mastic five pounds, glass 
pounded as small as barley, and well washed and dried two and one- 
half pounds, rectified turpentine two gallons ; put them into a clean 
four gallon stone or tin bottle, bung down securely, and keep rolling 
it backwards and forwards pretty smartly on a counter or any other 
solid place for at least four hours ; when, if the gum is all dissolved, 
the varnish may be decanted, strained through muslin into another 
bottle, and allowed to settle. It should be kept for six or nine months 
before use, as it thereby gets both tougher and clearer. 2. ( Second 
Quality.) Mastic eight pounds, turpentine four gallons ; dissolve by 
a gentle heat, and add pale turpentine varnish one-half gallon. 
8. Gum mastic six ounces, oil of turpentine one quart ; dissolve. 

Mastic varnish is used for pictures, &c. ; when good, it is tough, 
hard, brilliant, and colorless. Should it get ** chilled,^' one pound 
of well-washed silicious sand should be made moderately hot, and 
added to each gallon, which must then be well agitated for five min- 
utes, and afterwards allowed to settle. 

INDIA-RUBBER VARNISHES. 

1. Cut up one pound of India rubber into small pieces and diffuse 
in half a pound of sulphuric ether, which is done by digesting in a 
glass flask on a sand bath. Then add one pound pale linseed oil var- 
nish, previously heated, and after settling, one pound of oil of tur- 
pentine, also heated beforehand. Filter, while yet warm, into bottles. 
Dries slowly. 

2. Two ounces India rubber finely divided and digested in the same 
way, with a quarter of a pound of camphene, and half an ounce of 
naphtha or benzole. When dissolved add one ounce of copal varnish, 
which renders it more durable. Principally for gilding. 

8. In a wide mouthed glass bottle, digest two ounces of India rub- 
ber in fine shavings, with one pound of oil of turpentine, during two 
days, without shaking, then stir up with a wooden spatula. Add 



VARNISHES. 71 

another pound of oil of turpentine, and digest, with frequent agitation, 
until all is dissolved. Then mix a pound and a half of this solution 
with two pounds of very white copal-oil varnish, and a pound and a 
half of well boiled linseed oil, shake and digest in a sand bath, until 
they have united into a good varnish. — For morocco leather. 

4. Four ounces India rubber in fine shavings are dissolved in a 
covered jar by means of a sand bath, in two pounds of crude benzole, 
and then mixed with four pounds of hot linseed oil varnish, and a 
half pound of oil of turpentine. Dries very well. 

5. Flexible Varnish.— Melt one pound of rosin, and add gradually 
half a pound of India rubber in very fine shavings, and stir until cold. 
Then heat again, slowly, add one pound of linseed oil varnish, heated, 
and filter. 

6. Another, — Dissolve one pound of gum dammar, and a half 
pound of India rubber, in very small pieces, in one pound of oil of 
turpentine, by means of a water bath. Add one pound of hot oil 
varnish and filter. 

7. India rubber in small pieces, washed and dried, are fused for 
three hours in a close vessel, on a gradually heated sand bath. On 
removing from the sand bath, open the vessel and stir for ten minutes, 
then close again, and repeat the fusion on the following day, until 
small globules appear on the surface. Strain through a wire sieve. 

8. Varnish for Waterproof Goods. — Let a quarter of a pound of 
India rubber, in small pieces, soften in a half pound of oil of turpen- 
tine, then add two pounds of boiled oil, and let the whole boil for two 
hours over a slow coal fire. When dissolved, add again six pounds of 
boiled linseed oil and one pound of litharge, and boil until an even 
liquid is obtained. It is applied warm. 

9. Gutta Percha Varnish. — Clean a quarter of a pound of Gutta 
Percha in warm water from adhering impurities, dry well, dissolve in 
one pound of rectified rosin oil, and add two pounds of linseed oil 
varnish, boiling hot. Very suitable to prevent metals from oxidation. 

BLACK VARNISH FOR HARNESS. 

Digest shellac twelve parts, white turpentine five parts, gum 
sandarach two parts, lampblack one part, with spirits of turpentine 
four parts, alcohol ninety-six parts. 

BOILED OIL OR LINSEED-OIL VARNISH. 

Boil linseed oil sixty parts, with litharge two parts, and white 
vitriol one part, each finely powdered, until all water is evaporated. 
Then set by. Or, rub up borate of manganese four parts, with some 
of the oil, then add linseed oil three thousand parts, and heat to 
boiling. 

DAMMAR VARNISH. 

Gum dammar ten parts, gum sandarach five parts, gum mastic 
one part, digest at a low heat, occasionally shaking, with spirits of 



72 VARNISHES. 

turpentine twenty parts. Finally, add more spirits of turpentine 
to give the consistence of syrup. 

COMMON VARNISH. 

Digest shellac one part, with alcohol seven or eight parts. 

WATERPROOF VARNISHES. 

Take one pound of flowers of sulphur and one gallon of linseed oil, 
and boil them together until they are thoroughly combined. This 
forms a good varnish for waterproof textile fabrics. Another is made 
with four pounds oxyde of lead, twopounds of lampblack, five ounces 
of sulphur, and ten pounds of India rubber dissolved in turpentine. 
These substances, in such proportions, are boiled together until they 
are thoroughly combined. Coloring matters may be mixed with them. 
Twilled cotton may be rendered waterproof by the application of the 
oil sulphur varnish. It should be applied at two or three different 
times, and dried after each operation. 

VARNISHES FOR BALLOONS, GAS BAGS, ETC. 

1. India rubber in shavings one ounce ; mineral naphtha two lbs.; 
digest at a gentle heat in a close vessel till dissolved, and strain. 2. 
Digest one pound of Indian rubber, cut small, in six pounds oil of 
turpentine for 7 days, in a warm place. Put the mixture in a water 
bath, heat until thoroughly mixed, add one gallon of warm boiled 
drying oil, mix, and strain when cold. 3. Linseed oil one gallon ; 
dried white copperas and sugar of lead, each three ounces; litharge 
eight ounces ; boil with constant agitation tUl it strings well, then 
oool slowly and decant the clear. If too thick, thin it with quicker 
drying linseed oil. 

GOLD VARNISH. 

Digest shellac sixteen parts, gum sandarach, mastic, of each three 

parts, crocus one part, gum gamboge two parts, all bruised, with 
alcohol one hundred forty-four parts. Or, digest seed-lac, sanda- 
rach, mastic, of each eight parts, gamboge two parts, dragon's blood 
one part, white turpentine six parts, turmeric four parts, bruised, 
with alcohol one hundred twenty parts. 

WAINSCOT VARNISH FOR HOUSE PAINTING AND JAPANNING. 

Anime eight pounds ; clarified linseed oil three gallons ; litharge 
one-fourth pound ; acetate of lead one-half pound ; sulphate of copper 
one-fourth pound. 

All these materials must be carefully but thoroughly boiled together 
until the mixture becomes quite stringy, and then five and a half 
gallons of heated turpentine stirred in. It can be easily deepened in 
color by the addition of a little gold-size. 



LACKERS. 73 

LACKERS. 

GOLD LACKER. 

Put into a clean four gallon tin, one pound of ground turmeric, 
one and a half ounces of gamboge, three and a half pounds of pow- 
dered gum sandarach, three quarters of a pound of shellac, and two 
gallons of spirits of wine. When shaken, dissolved, and strained, 
add one pint of turpentine varnish, well mixed. 

RED SPIRIT LACKER. 

Made exactly as the gold lacker with these ingredients : two gal- 
lons of spirits of wine, one pound of dragon's blood, three pounds of 
Spanish annotto, three and a quarter pounds of gum sandarach, and 
two pints of turpentine. 

PALE BRASS LACKEB. 

Two gallons of spirits of wine, one pound of fine pale shellac, 
three ounces of Cape aloes, cut small : one ounce of gamboge, cut 
small. 

LACKER FOR TIN. 

Any good lacker laid upon tin gives it the appearance of copper 
or brass. It is made by coloring lac-varnish with turmeric to impart 
the color of brass to it, and with annotto, to give it the color of cop- 
per. If a tin plate is dipped into molten brass, the latter metal will 
adhere to it in a coat. 

LACKER VARNISH. 

A good lacker is made by coloring lac- varnish with turmeric and 
annotto. Add as much of these two coloring substances to the varnish 
as will give it the proper color ; then squeeze the varnish through a 
cotton cloth, when it forms lacker. 

DEEP GOLD COLORED LACKER. 

Seed-lac three ounces, turmeric one ounce, dragon's blood one- 
fourth ounce, alcohol one pint ; digest for a week, frequently shaking, 
decant and filter. 

Lackers are used upon polished metals and wood to impart the ap- 
pearance of gold. If yellow is required, use turmeric, aloes, saffron, 
or gamboge ; for red, use annotto, or dragon's blood, to color. Tur- 
meric, gamboge, and dragon's blood, generally afford a suflSicient 
range of colors. 

LACKERS FOR PICTURES, METAL, WOOD OR LEATHER. 

1. Seed-lac eight ounces, alcohol one quart ; digest in a close vessel 
in a warm situation for three or four days, then decant and strain. 
2. Substitute lac bleached by chlorine for seed-lac. Both are very 
tough, hard, and durable ; the last almost colorless. 

7 



74 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 

MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 



ARMENIAN OR DIAMOND CEMENT. 

This article, so much esteemed for uniting pieces of broken glass, 
for repairing precious stones, and for cementing them to watch cases 
and other ornaments, is made by soaking isinglass in water until it 
becomes quite soft, and then mixing it with spirit in which a little 
gum mastic and ammoniacum have been dissolved. 

The jewellers of Turkey, who are mostly Armenians, have a singular 
method of ornamenting watch cases, &c., with diamonds and other 
precious stones, by simply glueing or cementing them on. The stone 
is set in silver or gold, and the lower part of the metal made flat, or 
to correspond with the part to which it is to be fixed ; it is then 
warmed gently, and has the glue applied, which is so very strong 
that the parts so cemented never separate ; this glue, which will 
strongly unite bits of glass, and even polished steel, and may be ap- 
plied to a variety of useful purposes, is thus made in Turkey : — Dis- 
solve five or six bits of gum mastic, each the size of a large pea, in as 
much spirits of wine as will suffice to render it liquid ; and in another 
vessel, dissolve as much isinglass, previously a little softened in water, 
(though none of the water must be used,) in French brandy or good 
rum, as will make a two-ounce vial of very strong glue, adding two 
small bits of gum albanum, or ammoniacum, which must be rubbed 
or ground till they are dissolved. Then mix the whole with a suffi- 
cient heat. Keep the glue in a vial closely stopped, and when it is 
to be used, set the vial in boiling water. Some persons have sold a 
composition under the name of Armenian cement, in England ; but 
this composition is badly made ; it is much too thin, and the quantity 
of mastic is much too small. 

The following are good proportions : isinglass, soaked in water and 
dissolved in spirit, two ounces, (thick) ; dissolve in this ten grains of 
very pale gum ammoniac, (in tears,) by rubbing them together ; 
then add six large tears of gum mastic, dissolved in the least possible 
quantity of rectified spirit. 

Isinglass, dissolved in proof spirit, as above, three ounces ; bottoms 
of mastic varnish (thick but clear) one and a half ounces ; mix well. 

When carefully made, this cement resists moisture, and dries col- 
orless. As usually met with, it is not only of very bad quality, but 
sold at exorbitant prices. 

CEMENTS FOR MENDING EARTHERN AND GLASS WARE. 

1. Heat the article to be mended, a little above boiling water heat, 
then apply a thin coating of gum shellac, on both surfaces of the 
broken vessel, and when cold it will be as strong as it was originally. 
2. Dissolve gum shellac in alcohol, apply the solution, and bind the 
parts firmly together until the cement is perfectly dry. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 75 



CEMENT FOR STONEWARE. 

Another cement in which an analogous substance, the curd or ca- 
seum of milk is employed, is made by boiling slices of skim-milk cheese 
into a gluey consistence in a great quantity of water, and then incor- 
porating it with quicklime on a slab with a muller, or in a marble 
mortar. When this compound is applied warm to broken edges of 
stoneware, it unites them very firmly after it is cold. 

IRON-RUST CEMENT. 

The iron-rust cement is made of from fifty to one hundred parts of 
iron borings, pounded and sifted, mixed with one part of sal-ammo- 
niac, and when it is to be applied moistened with as much water as 
will give it a pasty consistency. Formerly flowers of sulphur were 
used, and much more sal-ammoniac in making this cement, but with 
decided disadvantage, as the union is effected by oxidizement, conse- 
quent expansion and solidification of the iron powder, and any hetero- 
geneous matter obstructs the effect. The best proportion of sal-ammo- 
niac is, I believe, one per cent of the iron borings. Another compo- 
sition of the same kind is made by mixing four parts of fine borings or 
filings of iron, two parts of potter's clay, and one part of pounded 
potsherds, and making them into a paste with salt and water. When 
this cement is allowed to concrete slowly on iron joints, it becomes 
very hard. 

FOR MAKING ARCHITECTURAL ORNAMENTS IN RELIEF. 

For making architectural ornaments in relief, a moulding compo- 
sition is formed of chalk, glue, and paper paste. Even statues have 
been made with it, the paper aiding the cohesion of the mass. 



Mastics of a resinous or bituminous nature, which must be softened 
or fused by heat, are the following : — 

VARLEY'S MASTIC. 

Mr. S. Varley's consists of sixteen parts of whiting sifted and thor- 
oughly dried by a red heat, adding when cold a melted mixture of 
sixteen parts of black rosin and one of bees'-wax, and stirring well 
during the cooling. 

ELECTRICAL AND CHEMICAL APPARATUS CEMENT. 

Electrical and chemical apparatus cement consists of 5 lbs. of rosin, 
1 of bees'-wax, 1 of red ochre, and two table-spoonsful of Paris plas- 
ter, all melted together. A cheaper one for cementing voltaic plates 
into wooden troughs is made with G pounds of rosin, 1 pound of red 
ochre, ^ of a pound of plaster of Paris, and i of a pound of linseed 
oil. The ochre and the plaster of Paris should be calcined beforehand, 
and added to the other ingredients in their melted state. The thinner 
the stratum of cement that is interposed, the stronger, generally speak- 
ing, is the junction. 



76 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 



CEMENT FOR IRON TUBES, BOILERS, ETC. 

Finely powdered iron sixty-six parts, sal-ammoniac one part, water 
a sufficient quantity to form into paste. 

CEMENT FOR IVORY, MOTHER OF PEARL, ETC. 

Dissolve one part of isinglass and two of wMte glue in thirty of wa- 
ter, strain and evaporate to six parts. Add one-thirtieth part of 
gum mastic, dissolved in half a part of alcohol, and one part of 
white zinc. When required for use, warm and shake up. 

CEMENT FOR HOLES IN CASTINGS. 

The best cement for this purpose is made by mixing one part of 
sulphur in powder, two parts of sal-ammoniac, and eighty parts of 
clean powdered iron turnings. Sufficient water must be added to 
make it into a thick paste, which should be pressed into the holes or 
seams which are to be filled up. The ingredients composing this ce- 
ment should be kept separate, and not mixed until required for use. 
It is to be applied cold, and the casting should not be used for two or 
three days afterwards. 

CEMENT FOR COPPERSMITHS AND ENGINEERS. 

Boiled linseed oil and red lead mixed together into a putty are often 
used by coppersmiths and engineers, to secure joints. The washers of 
leather or cloth are smeared with this mixture in a pasty state. 

A CHEAP CEMENT. 

Melted brimstone, either alone, or mixed with rosin and brick dust, 
forms a tolerably good and very cheap cement. 

plumber's CEMENT. 

Plumber's cement consists of black rosin one part, brick dust two 
parts, well incorporated by a melting heat. 

CEMENT FOR BOTTLE-CORKS. 

The bituminous or black cement for bottle-corks consists of pitch 
hardened by the addition of rosin and brick-dust. 

CHINA CEMENT. 

Take the curd of milk, dried and powdered, ten ounces ; quicklime 
one ounce ; camphor two drachms. Mix, and keep in closely stopped 
bottles. When used, a portion is to be mixed with a little water into 
a paste, to be applied quickly. 

CE3IENT FOR LEATHER. 

A mixture of India-rubber and shell-lac varnish makes a very ad- 
hesive leather cement. A strong solution of common isinglass, with 
a little diluted alcohol added to it, makes an excellent cement for 
leather. 



MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 77 



MARBLE CEMENT. 

Take plaster of paris, and soak it in a saturated solution of alum, 
then bake the two in an oven, the same as gjpsum is baked to make 
it plaster of paris ; after which they are ground to powder. It is 
then used as wanted, being mixed up with water like plaster and ap- 
plied. It sets into a very hard composition capable of taking a very 
high polish. It may be mixed with various coloring minerals to pro- 
duce a cement of any color capable of imitating marble. 

A GOOD CEMENT. 

Shellac dissolved in alcohol, or in a solution of borax, forms a pretty 
good cement. 

CEMENT FOR MARBLE WORKERS AND COPPERSMITHS. 

White of egg alone, or mixed with finely sifted quicklime, will 
answer for uniting objects which are not exposed to moisture. The 
latter combination is very strong, and is much employed for joining 
pieces of spar and marble ornaments. A similar composition is used 
by coppersmiths to secure the edges and rivets of boilers ; only bul- 
lock's blood is the albuminous matter used instead of white of egg. 

TRANSPARENT CEMENT FOR GLASS. 

Dissolve one part of India-rubber in 64 of chloroform, then add 
gum mastic in powder 16 to 24 parts, and digest for two days with 
frequent shaking. Apply with a camels-hair brush. 

CEMENT TO MEND IRON POTS AND PANS. 

Take two parts of sulphur, and one part, by weight, of fine black 
lead ; put the sulphur in an old iron pan, holding it over the fire 
until it begins to melt, then add the lead ; stir well until all is mixed 
and melted ; then pour out on an iron plate, or smooth stone. When 
cool, break into small pieces, A sufficient quantity of this compound 
being placed upon the crack of the iron pot to be mended, can be 
soldered by a hot iron in the same way a tinsmith solders his sheets. 
If there is a small hole in the pot, drive a copper rivet in it and then 
solder over it with this cement. 

CEMENT TO RENDER CISTERNS AND CASKS WATER TIGHT. 

An excellent cement for resisting moisture is made by incorporating 
thoroughly eight parts of melted glue, of the consistence used by car- 
penters, with four parts of linseed oil, boiled into varnish with lith- 
arge. This cement hardens in about forty -eight hours, and renders 
the joints of wooden cisterns and casks air and water tight. A com- 
pound of glue with one-fourth its weight of Venice turpentine, made 
as above, serves to cement glass, metal and wood, to one another 
Fresh-made cheese curd, and old skim-milk cheese, boiled in water to 
a slimy consistence, dissolved in a solution of bicarbonate of potash 

7* 



78 MISCELLANEOUS CEMENTS. 

are said to form a good cement for glass and porcelain. The gluten of 
wheat, well prepared, is also a good cement. White of eggs, with 
flour and water well-mixed, and smeared over linen cloth, forms a 
ready lute for steam joints in small apparatus. 

CEMENT FOR REPAIRING FRACTURED BODIES OF ALL KINDS. 

White lead ground upon a slab with linseed oil varnish, and kept 
out of contact of air, affords a cement capable of repairing fractured 
bodies of all kinds. It requires a few weeks to harden. When stone 
or iron are to be cemented together, a compound of equal parts of sul- 
phur with pitch answers very well. 

CEMENTS FOR CRACKS IN WOOD. 

Make a paste of slacked lime one part, rye-meal two parts, with a 
sufficient quantity of linseed oil. Or, dissolve one part of glue in six- 
teen parts of water, and when almost cool stir in sawdust and pre- 
pared chalk a sufficient quantity. Or, oil-varnish thickened with a 
mixture of equal parts of white-lead, red-lead, litharge, and chalk. 

CEMENT FOR JOINING METALS AND WOOD. 

Melt rosin and stir in calcined plaster until reduced to a paste, 
to which add boiled oil a sufficient quantity, to bring it to the con- 
sistence of honey ; apply warm. Or, melt rosin 180 parts, and stir 
in burnt umber 30, calcined plaster 15, and boiled oil 8 parts. 

GAS fitters' CE3IENT. 

Mix together, resin four and one-half parts, wax one part, and 
Venetian red three parts. 

IMPERVIOUS CEMENT FOR APPARATUS, CORKS, ETC. 

Zinc-white rubbed up with copal varnish to fill up the indentures; 
when dry, to be covered with the same mass, somewhat thinner, and 
lastly with copal varnish alone. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BRASS TO GLASS VESSELS. 

Melt rosin 150 parts, wax 30, and add burnt ochre 30, and cal- 
cined plaster 2 parts. Apply warm. 

CEMENT FOR FASTENING BLADES, FILES, ETC. 

Shellac two parts, prepared chalk one, powdered and mixed. The 
opening for the blade is filled with this powder, the lower end of the 
iron heated and pressed in. 

HYDRAULIC CEJIENT PAINT. 

If hydraulic cement be mixed with oil, it forms a first-rate anti- 
combustible and excellent water-proof paint for roofs of buildings, 
outhouses, walls, &c. 



BTJILDERS' CEMENTS. 79 

BUILDEPvS' CEMENTS. 



CEMENT FOR TERRACES, FLOORS, ROOFS, RESERVOIRS, ETC. 

In certain localities where a limestone impregnated with bitumen 
occurs, it is dried, ground, sifted, and then mixed with about its own 
weight of melted pitch, either mineral, vegetable, or that of cold tar. 
When this mixture is getting semifluid, it may be moulded into large 
slabs or tiles in wooden frames lined with sheet iron, previously 
smeared over with common lime mortar, in order to prevent adhesion 
to the moulds, which, being in moveable pieces, are easily dismounted 
so as to turn out the cake of artificial bituminous stone. This cement 
is manufactured upon a great scale in many places, and used for 
making Italian terraces, covering the floors of balconies, flat roofs, 
water reservoirs, water conduits, &c. When laid down, the joints 
must be well run together with hot irons. The floor of the terrace 
should be previously covered with a layer of Paris plaster or common 
mortar, nearly an inch thick, with a regular slope of one inch to the 
yard. Such bituminous cement weighs 144 pounds the cubic foot ; or 
a foot of square surface, one inch thick, weighs 12 pounds. Some- 
times a second layer of these slabs or tiles is applied over the first, 
with the precaution of making the seams or joints of the upper corres- 
pond with the middle of the under ones. Occasionally a bottom bed, 
of coarse cloth or gray paper, is applied. The larger the slabs are 
made, as far as they can be conveniently tsansported and laid down, 
so much the better. 

MASTIC CEMENT FOR COVERING THE FRONTS OF HOUSES. 

Fifty parts, by measure, of clean dry sand, fifty of limestone (not 
burned) reduced to grains like sand, or marble dust, and 10 parts of 
red lead, mixed with as much boiled linseed oil, as will make it 
slightly moist. The brick, to receive it, should be covered with three 
coats of boiled oil, laid on with a brush, and suffered to dry, before 
the mastic is put on. It is laid on with a trowel like plaster, but it 
is not so moist. It becomes hard as stone in a few months. Care 
must be exercised not to use too much oil. 

CEMENT FOR OUTSIDE BRICK WALLS. 

Cement for the outside of brick walls, to imitate stone, is made of 
clean sand 90 parts, litharge 5 parts, plaster of Paris 5 parts, moist- 
ened with boiled linseed oil. The bricks should receive two or three 
coats of oil before the cement is applied. 

CEMENT FOR COATING THE FRONTS OF BUILDINGS. 

The cement of dihl for coating the fronts of buildings consists of lin- 
seed oil, rendered dry by boiling with litharge, and mixed with por- 
celain clay in fine powder, to give it the consistence of stiff mortar. 



80 builders' cements. 

Pipe-clay would answer equally well if well dried, and any color might 
be given with ground bricks, or pottery. A little oil of turpentine to 
thin this cement aids its cohesion upon stone, brick or wood. It has 
been applied to sheets of wire cloth, and in this state Laid upon ter- 
races, in order to make them water tight ; but it is a little less ex- 
pensiye than lead. 

CEMENT FOR STEPS AND BRICK WALLS. 

A cement which gradually indurates to a stony consistence, may be 
made by mixing twenty parts of clean river sand, two of litharge, and 
one of quicklime, into a thin putty with linseed oil. The quicklime 
may be replaced with litharge. When this cement is applied to mend 
broken pieces of stone, as steps of stairs, it acquires after some time a 
stony hardness. A similar composition has been applied to coat over 
brick walls, under the name of mastic. 

A HARD CE3IEXT FOR SEAMS. 

An excellent cement for seams in the roofs of houses, or for any 
other exposed places, is made with white lead, dry white sand, and 
as much oil as will make it into the consistency of putty. This cement 
gets as hard as stone in a few weeks. It is a good cement for filling 
up cracks in exposed parts of brick buildings ; and for pointing up 
the base of chimneys, where they project through the roofs of shingled 
houses. 

ANOTHER GOOD CEMENT. 

Dissolve one pound of alum in boiling water, and while it is boiling 
add five pounds of brown soap, cut into small pieces ; boil the mixture 
about fifteen minutes. It then becomes sticky like shoemaker's wax. 
Now mix it with whiting to a proper consistency for filling up seams, 
&c. It becomes partially hard after a few months, and strongly ad- 
heres to wood. The wood should be perfectly dry. To make it ad- 
here it must be well pressed down. When dry it is impervious to 
water, and is slightly elastic. 

cejnient for tile-roofs, 

The best cement for closing up seams in tile-roofs is composed of 
equal parts of whiting and dry sand and 25 per cent of litharge, made 
into the consistency of putty with linseed oil. It is not liable to crack 
when cold, nor melt, like coal-tar and asphalt, with the heat of the 
sun. 

COARSE STUFF. 

Coarse stuff, or lime and hair, as it is sometimes called, is pre- 
pared in the same way as common mortar, with the addition of hair 
procured from the tanner, which must be well mixed with the mortar 
by means of a three-pronged rake, until the hair is equally distribu- 
ted throughout the composition. The mortar should be first formed, 
and when the lime and sand have been thoroughly mixed, the hair 
should be added by degrees, and the whole so thoroughly united, that 
the hair shall appear to be equally distributed throughout. 



builders' cements. 81 



PARKER'S CEMENT. 

This cement, "wliicli is perhaps the best of all others for stucco, as 
it is not subject to crack or flake off, is now very commonly used, 
and is formed by burning argillaceous clay in the same manner that 
lime is made. It is then reduced to powder. The cement, as used 
by the plasterer, is sometimes employed alone, and sometimes it is 
mixed with sharp sand ; and it has then the appearance, and almost 
the strength, of stone. As it is impervious to water, it is very 
proper for lining tanks and cisterns. 

haimelein's cement. 

This cement consists of earthy and other substances insoluble in 
■water, or nearly so ; and these may be either those which are in 
their natural state, or have bean manufactured, such as earthen- 
ware and china ; those being always preferred which are least 
soluble in water, and have the least color. When these are pul- 
verized, some oxide of lead is added, such as litharge, gray oxide, 
or minium, reduced to a fine powder ; and to the compound is 
added a quantity of pulverized glass or flint stones, the whole 
being thoroughly mixed and made into a proper consistence with 
some vegetable oil, as that of linseed. This ntakes a durable stucco 
or plaster, that is impervious to wet, and has the appearance of 
stone. 

The proportion of the several ingredients is as follows : — to every 
five hundred and sixty pounds of earth, or earths, such as pit sand, 
river sand, rock sand, pulverized earthenware or porcelain, add 
forty pounds of litharge, two pounds of pulverized glass or flint, 
one pound of minium, and two pounds of gray oxide of lead. Mix 
the whole together, and sift it through sieves of different degrees 
of fineness, according to the purposes to which the cement is to be 
applied. 

The following is the method of using it : — To every thirty pounds 
weight of the cement in powder, add about one quart of oil, either 
linseed, walnut, or some other vegetable oil, and mix it in the same 
manner as any other mortar, pressing it gently together, either by 
treading on it, or with the trowel ; it has then the appearance of 
moistened sand. Care must also be taken that no more is mixed at 
one time than is required for use, as it soon hardens into a solid 
mass. Before the cement is applied, the face of the wall to be plas- 
tered should be brushed over with oil, particularly if it be applied 
to brick, or any other substance that quickly imbibes the oil ; if to 
wood, lead, or any substance of a similar nature, less oil may be 
used. 

plaster in imitation of marble — SCAGLIOLA. 

This species of work is exquisitely beautiful when done with taste 
and judgment, and is so like marble to the touch, as well as appear- 
ance, that it is scarcely possible to distinguish the one from tho 
other. We shall endeavor to explain its composition, and the nittu- 



82 builders' cements. 

ner in which, it is applied ; but so much depends upon the workman's 
execution, that it is impossible for any one to succeed in an attempt 
to work with it without some practical experience. 

Procure some of the purest gypsum, and calcine it until the large 
masses have lost the brilliant, sparkling appearance by which they 
are characterized, and the whole mass appears uniformly opaque. 
This calcined gypsum is reduced to powder, and passed through a 
very fine sieve, and mixed up, as it is wanted for use, with glue, 
isinglass, or some other material of the same kind. This solu- 
tion is colored with the tint required for the scagliola ; but when a 
marble of various colors is to be imitated, the several colored compo- 
sitions required by the artist must be placed in separate vessels, and 
they are then mingled together in nearly the same manner that the 
painter mixes his color on the pallet. Having the wall or column 
prepared with rough plaster, it is covered with the composition, and 
the colors intended to imitate the marble, of whatever kind it may 
be, are applied when the floating is going on. 

It now only remains to polish the work, which, as soon as the com- 
position is hard enough, is done by rubbing it with pumice-stone, the 
work being kept wet with water applied by a sponge. It is then 
polished with Tripoli and charcoal, with a piece of fine linen, and 
finished with a piece of felt, dipped in a mixture of oil and Tripoli, 
and afterwards with pure oil. 

MALTHA, OR GREEK MASTIC. 

This is made by mixing lime and sand in the manner of mortar, 
and making it into a proper consistency with milk or size, instead of 
water. 

FIXE STUFF. 

This is made by slaking lime with a small portion of water, after 
which so much water is added as to give it the consistence of cream. 
It is then allowed to settle for some time, and the superfluous water 
is poured ofi", and the sediment is sufiered to remain till evaporation 
reduces it to a proper thickness for use. For some kinds of work, it 
is necessary to add a small portion of hair. 

STUCCO FOR INSIDE OF WALLS. 

This stucco consists of fine stuff already described, and a portion 
of fine washed sand, in the proportion of one of sand to three of fine 
stuff. Those parts of interior walls are finished with this stucco 
which are intended to be painted. In using this material, great care 
must be taken that the surface be perfectly level, and to secure this 
it must be well worked with a floating tool or wooden trowel. This 
is done by sprinkling a little water occasionally on the stucco, and 
rubbing it in a circular direction with the float, till the surfiice has 
attained a high gloss. The durability of the work very much de- 
pends upon the care with which this process is done ; for if it be not 
thoroughly worked, it is apt to crack. 



builders' cement. 83 

HIGGINS' STUCCO. 

To fifteen pounds of the best stone lime, add fourteen pounds of 
bone ashes, finely powdered, and about ninety-five pounds of clean, 
Trashed sand, quite dry, either coarse or fine, according to the 
nature of the work in hand. These ingredients must be intimately 
mixed, and kept from the air till wanted. When required for use, 
it must be mixed up into a proper consistence for working with 
lime water, and used as speedily as possible. 

GAUGE STUFF. 

This is chiefly used for nfouldings and cornices which are run or 
formed with a wooden mould. It consists of about one-fifth of plas- 
ter of Paris, mixed gradually with four-fifths of fine stuff". When 
the work is required to set very expeditiously, the proportion of 
plaster of Paris is increased. It is often necessary that the plaster 
to be used should have the property of setting immediately it is laid 
on, and in all such cases gauge stuff is used, and consequently it is 
extensively employed for cementing ornaments to walls or ceilings, 
as well as for casting the ornaments themselves. 

COMPOSITION. 

This is frequently used, instead of plaster of Paris, for the orna- 
mental parts of buildings, as it is more durable, and becomes in time 
as hard as stone itself. It is of great use in the execution of the 
decorative parts of architecture, and also in the finishings of picture 
frames, being a cheaper method than carving by nearly eighty per 
cent. 

It is made as follows : — Two pounds of the best whitening, one 
pound of glue, and half a pound of linseed oil are heated together, 
the composition being continually stirred until the different substan- 
ces are thoroughly incorporated. Let the compound cool, and then 
lay it on a stone covered with powdered whitening, and heat it well 
until it becomes of a tough and firm consistence. It may then be 
put by for use, covered with wet cloths to keep it fresh. When 
wanted for use, it must be cut into pieces, adapted to the size of the 
mould, into which it is forced by a screw press. The ornament, 
or cornice, is fixed to the frame or wall with glue or with white 
lead. 

FOUNDATIONS OF BUILDINGS. 

The nature and condition of the soil upon which houses are to be 
built should receive far more attention than is usually bestowed upon 
such subjects. A soil which is spongy and damp, or contains much 
loose organic matter, is generally unhealthy ; whereas a dry, porus 
soil affords a healthy site for buildings. Wherever we find a soil de- 
ficient in gravel or sand, or where gravel and sand-beds are underlaid 
with clay, there should be a thorough sub-soil drainage, because the 
clay retains the water, and a house built in such a spot would other- 
wise always be damp and unhealthy. 



84 BUILDERS* CEMENTS. 

When the sub-soil is swampy, which is the case with many portions 
of yarious cities that haye been filled in with what is called made 
earth, feyer is liable to prevail in houses built in such localities, 
owing to the decay of organic matter underneath, and its ascension 
in the form of gas through the soil. When good drainage cannot be 
effected in such situations, and it is found necessary to build houses 
on them, they should all have solid floors of concrete, laid from the 
outside of the foundations and covering the whole area over which 
the structure is erected. These floors tend to prevent dampness in 
houses, consequently they are more comfortable and healthy than 
they otherwise would be. Such floors also tend to prevent the crack- 
ing of the walls, owing to the solidity and firmness imparted to their 
foundations. 

CONCRETE FLOORS. 

The lower floors of all the cellars of houses should be composed of a 
bed of concrete about three inches thick. This would tend to render 
them dry, and more healthy, and at the same time prevent rats fi'om 
burrowing under the walls from the outside, and coming up under 
the floor — the method pursued by these vermin where houses are 
erected on a sandy soil. This concrete should be made of washed 
gravel and hydraulic cement. Common mortar mixed with pounded 
brick and washed gravel, makes a concrete for floors nearly as good 
as that formed with hydraulic cement. Such floors become very hard, 
and are much cheaper than those of brick or flagstones. 

FIRE-PROOF COMPOSITION TO RESIST FIRE FOR FiyE HOURS. 

Dissolve, in cold water, as much pearlash as it is capable of holding 
in solution, and wash or daub with it all the boards, wainscoting, 
timber, &c. Then diluting the same liquid with a little water, add to 
it such a portion of fine yellow clay as will make the mixture the same 
consistence as common paint ; stir in a small quantity of paperhang- 
er's flour paste to combine both the other substances. Give three 
coats of this mixture. When dry, ^ppty the following mixture : — 
Put into a pot equal quantities of finely pulverized iron filings, brick 
dust, and ashes : pour over them size or glue water ; set the whole 
near a fire, and when warm stir them well together. With this liquid 
composition, or size, give the wood one coat ; and on its getting dry, 
give it a second coat. It resists fire for five hours, and prevents the 
wood from ever bursting into flames. It resists the ravages of fire, 
so as only to be reduced to coal or embers, without spreading the con- 
flagration by additional flames ; by which five clear hours are gained 
in removing valuable effects to a place of safety, as well as rescuing 
the lives of all the family from danger ! Furniture, chairs, tables, 
&c., particularly staircases, may be so protected. Twenty pounds of 
finely sifted yellow clay, a pound and a half of flour for making the 
paste, and one pound of pearlash, are sufficient to prepare a square 
rood of deal-boards. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 85 

MISCELLANEOUS PvECEIPTS. 



TO POLISH WAINSCOT AND MAHOGANY. 

A Yery good polish for wainscot may be made in the following 
manner : Take as much beeswax as required, and, placing it in a 
glazed earthen pan, add as much spirits of wine as will cover it, and 
let it dissolve without heat. Add either one ingredient as is required, 
to reduce it to the consistence of butter. When this mixture is well 
rubbed into the grain of the wood, and cleaned off with clean linen, 
it gives a good gloss to the work. 

IMITATION OF MAHOGANY. 

Plane the surface smooth, and rub with a solution of nitrous acid. 
Then apply with a soft brush one ounce of dragon's blood, dissolved 
in about a pint of alcohol, and with a third of an ounce of carbonate of 
soda, mixed and filtered. When the brilliancy of the polish dimin- 
ishes, it may be restored by the use of a little cold drawn linseed oil. 

FURNITURE VARNISH. 

White wax six ounces, oil of turpentine one pint ; dissolve by a 
gentle heat. Used to polish wood by friction. 

TO MAKE GLASS PAPER. 

Take any quantity of broken glass (that with a greenish hue is 
the best), and pound it in an iron mortar. Then take severel sheets 
of paper, and cover them evenly with a thin coat of glue, and, hold- 
ing them to the fire, or placing them upon a hot piece of wood or 
plate of iron, sift the pounded glass over them. Let the several 
sheets remain till the glue is set, and shake off the superfluous pow- 
der, which will do again. Then hang up the papers to dry and 
harden. Paper made in this manner is much superior to that gene- 
rally purchased at the shops, which chiefly consists of fine sand. To 
obtain different degrees of fineness, sieves of diflerent degrees of fine- 
ness must be used. Use thick paper. 

TO MAKE STONE PAPER. 

As, in cleaning wood-work, particularly deal and other soft 
woods, one process is sometimes found to answer better than another, 
we may describe the manner of manufacturing a stone paper, which, 
in some cases, will be preferred to sand paper, as it produces a good 
face, and is less liable to scratch the work. Having prepared the 
paper as already described, take any quantity of powdered pumice- 
stone, and sift it over the paper through a sieve of moderate fineness. 
When the surface has hardened, repeat the process till a tolerably 
thick coat has been formed upon the paper, which, when dry, will 
be fit for use. 

8 



86 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



WHITEWASH. 

The best method of making a whitewash for outside exposure is to 
slack half a bushel of lime in a barrel, add one pound of common 
salt, half a pound of the sulphate of zinc, and a gallon of sweet milk. 

PAINT FOB COATING WIRE WORK. 

Boil good linseed oil with as much litharge as will make it of the 
consistency to be laid on with the brush ; add lampblack at the rate 
of one part to every ten, by weight of the litharge ; boil three hours 
over a gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner than the follow- 
ing coats, 

TO BLEACH SPONGE. 

Soak it well in dilute muriatic acid for twelve hours. Wash well 
with water, to remove the lime, then immerse it in a solution of hypo- 
sulphite of soda, to which dilute muriatic acid has been added a mo- 
ment before. After it is bleached sufiiciently remove it, wash again, 
and dry it. " It may thus be bleached almost snow white. 

LAC VARNISH FOR VINES. 

Grape vines may be pruned at any period without danger from 
loss of bleeding, by simply covering the cut parts with varnish made 
by dissolving stick-lac in alcohol. The lac varnish scon dries, and 
forms an impenetrable coat to rain ; it may also be applied with ad- 
vantage in coating the wounds of young trees. 

RAZOR PASTE. 

1. Levigated oxide of tin (prepared putty powder) 1 oz. ; pow- 
dered oxalic acid 1-4 oz. ; powdered gum 20 grs. ; make it into a 
stiff paste with water, and evenly and thinly spread it over the strop. 
With very little friction, this paste gives a fine edge to the razor, and 
its efi&ciency is still further increased by moistening it. 

2. Emery reduced to an impalpable powder 2 parts ; spermaceti 
ointment 1 part ; mix together, and rub it over the strop. 

3. Jewellers* rouge, blacklead, and suet, equal parts ; mix. 

LEATHER VARNISH. 

Durable leather varnish is composed of boiled linseed oil, in which 
a drier, such as litharge, has been boiled. It is colored with lamp- 
black. This varnish is used for making enamelled leather. Common 
leather varnish, which is used as a substitute for blacking, is made 
of thin lac-varnish colored with ivory black. 

TO KEEP TIRES TIGHT ON WHEELS. 

Before putting on the tires fill the felloes with linseed oil, which is 
done by heating the oil in a trough to a boiling heat, and keeping 
the wheel, with a stick through the hub, in the oil, for an hour The 
wheel is turned round until every felloe is kept in the oil one hour. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 87 



CUTTING GLASS. 

To cut iDottles, shades, or other glass vessels neatly, heat a rod of 
iron to redness, and having filled your vessel the exact height you 
wish it to be cut, with oil of any kind, you proceed very gradually to 
dip the red hot iron into the oil, which, heating all along the surface, 
suddenly the glass chips and cracks right round, when you can lift 
off the upper portion clean by the surface of the oil. 

PREPARED LIQUID GLUE. 

Take of best white glue 16 ounces ; white lead, dry, 4 ounces ; 
rain water 2 pints ; alcohol 4 ounces. With constant stirring dis- 
solve the glue and lead in the water by means of a water-bath. Add 
the alcohol, and continue the heat for a few minutes. Lastly pour 
into bottles while it is still hot. 

LIQUID GLUES. 

Dissolve 33 parts of best (Buffalo) glue on the steam bath in a 
porcelain vessel, in 36 parts of water. Then add gradually, stirring 
constantly, 3 parts of aqua fortis, or as much as is sufficient to pre- 
vent the glue from hardening when cool. Or, dissolve one part of 
powdered alum in 120 of water, add 120 parts of glue, 10 of acetic 
acid and 40 of alcohol, and digest. 

MARINE GLUE. 

Dissolve 4 parts of India rubber in 34 parts of coal tar naphtha — 
aiding the solution with heat and agitation, add to it 64 parts of 
powdered shellac, which must be heated in the mixture, till the 
whole is dissolved. While the mixture is hot it is poured upon metal 
plates in sheets like leather. When required for use, it is heated in 
a pot, till soft, and then applied with a brush to the surfaces to be 
joined. Two pieces of wood joined with this glue can scarcely be 
sundered. 

AN EXCELLENT PASTE FOR ENVELOPES. 

Mix in equal quantities gum-arabic (substitute dextrine) and 
water in a phial, place it near a stove, or on a furnace register, and 
stir or shake it well, until it dissolves. Add a little alcohol to pre- 
vent its souring. 

DEXTRINE, OR BRITISH GUM. 

Dry potato-starch heated from 300° to 600*^ until it becomes brown, 
soluble in cold water, and ceases to turn blue with iodine. Used by 
calico printers and others, instead of gum arable. 

GUM MUCILAGE. 

A little oil of cloves poured into a bottle containing gum mucilage 
prevents the latter from becoming sour and putrid ; this essential oil 
possesses great antiseptic powers. 



MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



FLOUR PASTE. 



Too numerous to mention are the little conveniences of haying a 
little flour paste always at hand, as those made of any of the gums 
impart a glaze to printed matter, and make it rather difficult to read. 
Dissolve a tablespoonful of alum in a quart of warm water, and when 
cold, stir in as much flour as will give it the consistency of thick 
cream, being particular to beat up all the lumps, then stir in as 
much powdered resin as will stand on a dime, then throw in half a 
dozen cloves, merely to give a pleasant odor. Next, have a vessel on 
the fire which has a teacupful or more of boiling water, pour the 
flour mixture on the boiling water, stir it well all the time ; in a very 
few minutes it will be of the consistence of mush ; pour it out in an 
earthen or china vessel ; letj it cool ; lay a cover on it, and put it 
in a cool place. It will keep for months. When needed for use, take 
out a portion and soften it with warm water. Keep it covered an 
inch or two in water to prevent the surface from drying up. 

SEALING-WAX FOR FRUIT-CANS. 

Beeswax, J oz. ; English vermillion, IJ ozs. ; gum shellac, 2J ozs. ; 
rosin, 8 ozs. Take some cheap iron vessel that you can always keep 
for the purpose, and put in the rosin and melt it, and stir in the ver- 
million. Then add the shellac, slowly, and stir that in, and afterward 
the beeswax. When wanted for use at any after time, set it upon a 
slow fire and melt it so you can dip bottle-nozzles in. For any pur- 
pose, such as an application to trees, where you want it tougher than 
the above preparation will make it, add a little more beeswax, and 
leave out the vermillion. 

If the vermillion is left out in the above, the wax will be all the 
better for it, as it is merely used for coloring purposes. 

FUSIBLE METAL. 

1. Bismuth 8 parts ; lead 5 parts ; tin 3 parts ; melt together. 
Melts below 212 degrees Fahr. 2. Bismuth 2 parts ; lead 5 parts ; 
tin 8 parts. Melts in boiling water. 8. Lead 3 parts; tin 2 parts; 
bismuth 5 parts ; mix. Melts at 197 deg. Fahr. 

Remarks. The above are used to make toy-spoons, to surprise 
children by their melting in hot liquors ; and to form pencils lor 
writing on asses' skin, or paper prepared by rubbing burnt harts- 
horn into it. 

METALLIC CEMENT. 

M. Greshiem states that an alloy of copper and mercury, prepared 
as follows, is capable of attaching itself firmly to the surfaces of 
metal, glass, and porcelain. From twenty to thirty parts of finely 
divided copper, obtained by the reduction of oxide of copper with 
hydrogen, or by precipitation from solution of its sulphate with 
zinc, are made into a paste with oil of vitrol and seventy parts of 
mercury added, the whole being well triturated. When the amal- 
gamation is complete, the acid is removed by washing with boiling 



MISCELLANEOUS KECEIPTS. 89 

water, and the compound allowed to cool. In ten or twelve hours, 
it becomes sufficiently hard to receive a brilliant polish, and to 
scratch the surface of tin or gold. By heat it assumes the consis- 
tence of wax ; and, as it does not contract on cooling, M. Greshiem 
recommends its use by dentists for stopping teeth. 

ARTIFICIAL GOLD. 

This is a new metallic alloy which is now very extensively used in 
France as a substitute for gold. Pure copper 100 parts, zinc, or 
preferably tin 17 parts, magnesia 6 parts, sal ammoniac 3*6 parts, 
quick lime 1*8 parts, tartar of commerce 9 parts, are mixed as fol- 
lows : The copper is first melted, then the magnesia, sal ammoniac, 
lime, and tartar, are then added, separately and by degrees, in the 
form of powder ; the whole is now briskly stirred for about half an 
hour, so as to mix thoroughly ; and then the zinc is added in small 
grains by throwing it on the surface and stirring till it is entirely 
fused ; the crucible is then covered and the fusion maintained for 
about 35 minutes. The surface is then skimmed and the alloy is 
ready for casting. 

It has a fine grain, is malleable and takes a splendid polish. It 
does not corrode readily, and for many purposes is an excellent sub- 
stitute for gold. When tarnished, its , brilliancy can be restored by 
a little acidulated water. If tin be employed instead of zinc the alloy 
will be more brilliant. It is very much used in France, and must 
ultimately attain equal popularity here. 



The or-molu of the brass founder, popularly known as an imitation 
of red gold, is extensively used by the French workmen in metals. 
It is generally found in combination with grate and stove work. It 
is composed of a greater portion of copper and less zinc than ordi- 
nary brass, is cleaned readily by means of acid, and is burnished with 
facility. To give this material the rich appearance, it is not unfre- 
quently brightened up after «* dipping " (that is cleaning in acid) by 
means of a scratch brush (a brush made of fine brass wire), the 
action of which helps to produce a very brilliant gold-like surface. 
It is protected from tarnish by the application of lacker. 

BLANCHED COPPER. 

Fuse 8 ounces of copper and J ounce of neutral arsenical salt, with 
a flux made of calcined borax, charcoal dust and powdered glass. 

BROWNING GUN BARRELS. 

The tincture of iodine diluted with one-half its bulk of water, is a 
superior liquid for browning gun barrels. 

SILVERING POWDER FOR COATING COPPER. 

Nitrate of silver 30 grains, common salt 30 grains, cream of tar- 
ar 3i drachms ; mix, moisten with water, and apply. 



90 MISCELLANEOUS RECEIPTS. 



ALLOY FOR JOURNAL BOXES. 



The best alloy for journal boxes is composed of copper, 24 lbs. ; tin, 
24 lbs. ; and antimony, 8 lbs. Melt the copper first, then add the 
tin, and lastly the antimony. It should be first run into ingots, then 
melted and cast in the form required for the boxes. 



ALLOY FOR BELLS OF CLOCKS. 



The bells of the pendules^ or ornamental clocks, made in Paris, are 
composed of copper 72.00, tin 26.56, iron 1.44, in 100 parts. 



AX ALLOY FOR TOOLS. 



An alloy of 1000 parts of copper and 14 of tin is said to furnish 
tools, which hardened and sharpened in the manner of the ancients, 
afford an edge nearly equal to that of steel. 



ALLOY FOR CYMBALS AND GONGS. 



An alloy for cymbals and gongs is made of 100 parts of copper with 
about 25 of tin. To give this compound the sonorous property in 
the highest degree, the piece should be ignited after it is cast, and 
then plunged immediately into cold water. 



SOLDER FOR STEEL JOINTS. 



Silver 19 pennyweights, copper 1 pennyweight, brass 2 penny- 
weights. Melt under a coat of charcoal dust. 

SOFT GOLD SOLDER. 

Is composed of four parts gold, one of silver, and one of copper. 
It can be made softer by adding brass, but the solder becomes more 
liable to oxidize. 

FILES. 

Allow duir files to lay in diluted sulphuric acid until they are bit 
deep enough. 

TO PREVENT RUSTING. 

Boiled linseed oil will keep polished tools from rusting if it is 
allowed to dry on them. Common sperm oil will prevent them from 
rusting for a short period. A coat of copal varnish is frequently 
applied to polished tools exposed to the weather. 

ANTI-ATTRITION, AND AXLE-GREASE. 

One part of fine black lead, ground perfectly smooth, with four 
parts of lard. 

TO GALVANIZE. 

Take a solution of nitro-muriate of gold (gold dissolved in a mix- 
ture of aquafortis and muriatic acid) and add to a gill of it a pint 
of ether or alcohol, then immerse your copper chain in it for about 
15 minutes, when it will be coated with a film of gold. The copper 
must be perfectly clean and free from oxyd, grease, or dirt, or it will 
not take on the gold. 



BRASS, BRONZE, BELL AND BRITANNIA METAL, 91 

RARE AND VALUABLE COMPOSITIONS. 

Receipts for the use of Mechanists, Iron and Brass Founders, 
Tinmen, Coppersmiths, Turners, Dentists, Finishers oj Brass, 
Britannia, and German Silver, and /or other useful and im- 
portant purposes in the Practical Arts, 

The larger number of the following Receipts are the result o\ 
inquiries and experiments by a practical operative. Most of those 
which relate to the mixing of metals and to the finishing ol' manufac- 
tured articles, have been thoroughly tested by him, and will be found 
to produce the results desired and expected. The others have been 
collected from eminent scientific works. 

No. 1. Yellow Brass, /or Turning. — (Common article.) ^Copper, 
20 lbs.; Zinc, 10 lbs.; Lead from 1 to 3 ozs. 
Put in the Lead last before pouring off. 

JMo. 2. Red Brass, ybr Turning. — Copper, 24 lbs.; ZinC; 5 lbs.5 
Lead, 8 ozs. 

Put in the Lead last before pouring off. 

JN'o.3. Red Brass, /ree, /or Turning. — Copper, 160 lbs.; Zinc, 50 
lbs.; Lead, 10 lbs.; Antimony, 44 ozs. 

No. 4. Another Brass, /or Turning. — Copper, 32 lbs.; Zinc, 10 
lbs.; Lead, 1 lb. 

No. 5. Best Red Brass, for Fine Castings. — Copper, 24 lbs. 5 
Zinc, 5 lbs.; Bismuth, I oz. 

Put in the Bismuth last before pouring off. 

No. 6. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 7 lbs.; Zinc, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2 lbs. 

No. 7. Bronze Metal. — Copper, 1 lb.; Zinc, 12 lbs.; Tin, 8 lbs. 

No. 8. Bell Metal, /or large Bells. — Copper, 100 lbs.; Tin, from 
20 to 25 lbs. 

No. 9. Bell Metal, /or small Bells.— Copper, 3 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb. 

No. 10. Cock Metal. — Copper, 20 lbs.; Lead, 8 lbs.; Litharge, 1 0Z.5 
Antimony, 3 ozs. 

No. 11. Hardening for Britannia. — (To be mixed separately 
from the other ingredients.) — Copper, 2 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb. 

No. 12. Good Britannia Metal.— Tin, 150 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs.; 
Antimony, 10 lbs. 

No. 13. Britannia Metal, 2d ^wa/i7t/.— Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs.5 
Antimony, 9 lbs. 

No. 14. Britannia Metal, for Casting. — Tin, 210 lbs.; Copper, 
4 lbs.; Antimony, 12 lbs. 

No. 15. Britannia Metal, /or Spinning, — Tin, 100 lbs. ; Britannia 
Hardening, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 4 lbs. 

No. IG. Britannia Metal, /or Registers. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Harden- 
ing, 8 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs. 

No. 17. Best Britannia, /or Spouts.— Tin, 140 lbs.; Copper, 3 lbs; 
Antimony, G lbs. 

No. 18. Best Britannia, /or Spoons. — Tin, 100 lbs. ; Hardening, 
6 Ibs.j Antimony, 10 lbs. 



92 GERMAN SILVER, TOMBAC, TUTANIA, AND SOLDERS. 

No. 19. Best Britannia, for Handles, — Tin, 140 lbs. 5 Copper, 2 
lbs. J Antimony, 5 lbs. 

No. 20. Best Britannia, /or LampSj Pillars ^ and Spouts. — Tin, 
300 lbs.5 Copper, 4 Ibs.j Antimony, 15 lbs. 

No. 21. Casting — Tin, 100 lbs; Hardening, 5 lbs.; Antimony, 5 lbs. 

No. 22. Lining Metal, for Boxes of Railroad Cars.— Mix Tin, 24 

lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Antimony, 8 lbs. (for a hardening); then add Tin, 72 lbs. 

No. 23. Fine Silver Colored Metal. — Tin, 100 lbs.; Antimony, 
8 lbs.; Copper, 4 lbs.; Bismuth, 1 lb. 

No. 24. German Silver, First Quality for Casting. — Copper, 50 
lbs.; Zinc, 25 lbs.; Nickel, 25 lbs. 

No. 25. German Silver, Second Quality for Casting.^ Copper, 50 
lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; Nickel, (best pulverized,) 10 lbs. 

No. 26. German Silver, for Rolling. — Copper, GO lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; 
Nickel, 25 lbs. 

No. 27. German Silver, ybr Bells and other Castings. — Copper^ 
60 lbs.; Zinc, 20 lbs.; Nickel, 20 lbs.; Lead, 3 lbs.; Iron, (that of tin plate 
being- best,) 2 lbs. 

No. 28 Imitation of Silver. — Tin, 3 ozs.; Copper, 4 lbs. 

No. 29. Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb. 

No. 30. Tombac — Copper, 16 lbs.; Tin, 1 lb.; Zinc, 1 lb. 

No. 31. Red Tombac — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 1 lb. 

No 32. Hard White Metal. — Sheet Brass, 32 ozs.; Lead,2ozs.5 
Tin, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz. 

No. 33. Metal for Taking Impressions. — Lead, 3 lbs.; Tin, 2 
lbs.; Bismuth, 5 lbs. 

No. 34. Spanish Tutania. — Iron or Steel, 8 ozs.; Antimony, 16 ozs; 
Nitre, 3 ozs. 

Melt and harden 8 ozs. Tin with 1 oz. of the above compound. 

No. 35. Another Tutania. — Antimony, 4 ozs.; Arsenic, 1 oz.; Tin, 
2 lbs. 

No. 36. Gun Metal.— Bristol Brass, 112 lbs.; Zinc, 14 lbs.; Tin, 7 lbs; 

No. 37. Rivet Metal. — Copper, 32 ozs.; Tin, 2 ozs.; Zinc, 1 oz. 

No. 38. Rivet Metal, /or Hose. — Tin, 64 lbs.; Copper, 1 lb. 

No. 39. Fusible Alloy, (which melts in boiling water.) — Bismuth, 
8 ozs.; Till, 3 ozs.; Lead, 5 ozs. 

No. 40. Fusible Alloy, /or Silvering Glass. — Tin, 6 ozs.; Lead, 
10 ozs.; Bismuth, 21 ozs.; Mercury, a small quantity. 

No. 41. Solder, /or Gold. — Gold, 6pwts.; Silver, 1 pwt.; Copper, 2 
pwts. 

No. 42. SoLDER,/or Silver. — (For theuse ofJeweller.s) — Fine Silver, 
19 pwts ; Copper, 1 pwt,; Sheet Brass, 10 pwts. 

No. 43. White Solder, /or Silver, — Silver, 1 oz.; Tin, 1 oz. 

No. 44. White Solder, /or raised Britannia Ware. — Tin, 100 lbs., 
Copper, 3 ozs.; to make it free, add Lead, 3 ozs. 

No. 45. Best Soft Solder, for Cast Britannia Ware. — Tin, 8 lbs.5 
Lead, 6 lbs. 

No. 46. Yellow Solder, for Brass or Copper. — Copper, 1 lb* 5 
Zinc, 1 lb. 



GOLD, SILVER & COPPER SOLDERS, & DIPPING ACIDS. 93 

No. 47. Yellow Solder, /or Brass or Copper. — (Stronger than 
the last.) — Copper, 32 Ibs.j Zinc, 29 Ibs.j Tin, 1 lb. 

No. 48. Solder, /or Copper. — Copper, 10 lbs.; Zinc, 9 Ibsi 

No. 49. Black Solder. — Copper, 2 lbs.; Zinc, 3 lbs ; Tin, 2 ozs* 

No. 50. Black Solder.— Sheet Brass, 20 lbs.; Tin, 6 lbs.3 Zinc, 1 lb. 

No. 51. Soft Solder. — Tin, 15 lbs.3 Lead, 15 lbs. 

No, 52. Silver SoldeR; /or Plated Metal. — Fine Silver, 1 oz.j 
Brass, 10 pwts. 

No. 53. Yellow Dipping Metal.— Copper, 32 lbs. 5 Zinc, 2 lbs. 5 
SoftSolder,25 ozs. 

No. 54. Quick Bright Dipping Acid, /or Brass which has been 
crmoloud. — Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall.5 Nitric Acid, 1 gall. 

No. 55. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric Acid, 12 lbs.5 Nitric Acid, 1 pint 5 
Nitre, 4 lbs.; Soot, 2 handluls ; Brimstone, 2 ozs. 

Pulverize the Brimstone and soak it in water an hour. Add the Nitric Acid last. 

No. 56. Good Dipping Acid, /or Cast Brass. — Sulphuric Acid; 

1 qt., Nitre, I qt.; Water, 1 qt. 

A little Muriatic Acid may be added or omitted. 

No. 57. Dipping Acid. — Sulphuric Acid, 4 galls.; Nitric Acid, 2 galls.; 
Saturated solution of Sulphate of Iron (Copperas), 1 pint; Solution of 
Sulphate of Copper, 1 qt. 

No. 58. Ormolu Dipping Acid, /or Sheet Brass. — Sulphuric Acid, 

2 galls ; Nitric Acid, 1 pt.; Muriatic Acid, 1 pt.; Water, 1 pt.; Nitre, 12 lbs. 
Put in the Muriatic Acid last, a little at a time and stir the mixture with a stick. 

No. 59. Ormolu Dipping Acid, /or Sheet or Cast Brass. — Sulphu- 
ric Acid, I gall; Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz.; Sulphur, (in flour,) 1 oz.; Blue Vitriol, 
1 oz. ; Saturated Solution of Zinc in Nitric Acid, mixed with an equal 
qaantity of Sulphuric Acid, 1 gall. 

No. 60. To Prepare Brass Work for Ormolu Dipping. — If 
the work is oily, boil it in lye ; and if it is finished work, filed or turned, dip 
it in old acid, and it is then ready to be ormeloed ; but if it is imfinished, 
and free from oil, pickle it in strong sulphuric acid, dip in pure nitric acid, 
and then in the old acid, after which it will be ready for ormcloing. 

No. 61. To Repair Old Nitric Acid Ormolu Dips. — If the 

work after dipping appears coarse and spotted, add vitriol till it answers 
-the purpose. If the work after dipping appears too smooth, add muriatic 
acid and nitre till it gives the right appearance. 

The other ormolu dips should be repaired according to the receipts, 
putting in Hie proper ingredients to strengthen them. Ihcy should not be 
allowed to settle, but should be stirred often while using. 

No. 62. Tinning Acid, /or Brass or Zinc. — Muriatic Acid, 1 qt., 
Zinc, 6 ozs. To a solution of this add, Water, I qt.; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ozs. 

No. 63. Vinegar Bronze, for Bi'ass. — Vinegar, 10 galls.; Blue 
Vitriol, 3 lbs.; JMuriatic Acid. 3 lbs; Corrosive Sublimate, 4 grs.; Sal Am- 
monia, 2 lbs.; Alum, 8 ozs. 

No. 64. Directions for Making Lacquer. — Mix the ingredients 
nnd let the vessel containing them stand in the sun, or in a place slightly 
Warmed three or four daj's, shaking it frequently till the gum is dissolved, 
after which let it settle from twenty-four to ibrty-eight hours, when the 
clear liquor may be poured off for use. Pulverized glass is sometimes 
used in making Lacquer, to carry down the impurities. 

No. 65. h AC iiu Eli, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, proof specific gravity 



94 LACQUERS VARIOUS KINDS — BRONZES, &C. 

not less than 95-IOOths, 2 galls.; Seed Lac, 1 lb.; Gum Copal, 1 oz.5 English 
SafFron, 1 oz.5 Annotto, 1 oz. 

No. 66. Lacquer, /or Bronzed Brass. — To one pint of the above 
Lacquer, add. Gamboge, 1 oz.3 and after mixing it add an equal quantity of 
tlie first Lacquer. 

No. 67. Deep Gold Colored La.cq,U£r. — Best Alcohol, 40 ozs. ; 
Spanish Annotto, 8 grs.; Turmeric, 2 drs.3 8hell Lac, J oz.; Red Sanders, 
12 grs.; when dissolved add Spirits of Turpentine, 30 drops. , 

No. 68. Gold Colored LAcq^VF.R, for Brass not Dipped. — Alcohol, 
4 galls.; Turmeric, 3 lbs,; Gamboge, 3 ozs.; Gum Sanderach, 7 lbs. ; Shell 
Lac, 1 J lb.; Turpentine Varnish, 1 pint. 

No. 69. Gold Colored Lacquer, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 36 
ozs.; Seed Lac, 6 ozs.; Amber, 2 ozs.; Gum Gutta, 2 ozs.; Red Sandal 
Wood, 24 grs. ; Dragon's Blood, 60 grs. ; Oriental Saffron, 36 grs.; Pulver- 
ized Glass, 4 ozs. 

No. 70. Good Lacquer, /or Brass. — Seed Lac, 6 ozs.; Amber or 
Copal, 2 ozs.; Best Alcohol, 4 galls.; Pulverized Glass, 4 ozs.; Dragon's 
Blood, 40 grs.; Extract of Red Sandal Wood obtained by w^ater, 30 grs. 

No. 7L Lacquer, /or Dipped Brass. — Alcohol, 12 galls.; Seed Lac, 
9 lbs. ; Turmeric, 1 lb. to a gallon of the above mixture ; Spanish Saffron, 
4 ozs. 

The Saffron is to be added for Bronze work. 

No. 72. Good Lacquer. — Alcohol, 8 ozs.; Gamboge, 1 oz.; Shell 
Lac, 3 ozs.; Annotto, 1 oz.; solution of 3 ozs. of Seed Lac in 1 pint of Al- 
cohol ; when dissolved add ^ oz. Venice Turpentine, 1 oz. Dragon's Blood, 
will make it dark ; keep it in a warm place four or five days. 

No. 73. Pale Lacquer, /or Tin Plate. — Best Alcohol, 8 ozs.; Tur- 
meric, 4 drs.; Hay Saffron, 2 scs.; Dragon Blood, 4 scs.; Red Sanders. 1 sc; 
Shell Lac, 1 oz.; Gum Sanderach, 2 drs.; Gum Mastic, 2 drs.; Canada Bal- 
eam, 2 drs.; when dissolved add Spirits of Turpentine, 80 drops. 

No. 74. Red Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 8 galls.; Dragon's 
Blood, 4 lbs.; Spanish Annotto, 12 lbs., Gum Sanderach, 13 lbs.; Turpen- 
tine, 1 gall. 

No. 75. Pale Lacquer, /?r Brass. — Alcohol, 2 galls.; Cape Aloes 
cut small, 3 ozs.; Pale Shell Lac, I lb.; Gamboge, 1 oz. 

No. 76. Best Lacquer, for Brass. — Alcohol, 4 galls.; Shell Lac, 
2 lbs.; Amber Gum, 1 lb.; Copal, 20 ozs. ; Seed Lac, 3 lbs.; Saffron, to 
color; Pulverized Glass, 8 ozs. 

No. 77. Color for Lacquer. — Alcohol, 1 qt.; Annotto, 4 ozs. 

No. 78. Lacquer, /?r Pilpsophical Instruments. — Alcohol, 80 ozs.; 
Gum Gutta, 3 ozs.; Gum Sandarac,' 8 ozs. ; Gum Elemi, 8 ozs,; Dragon's 
Blood, 4 ozs ; Seed Lac, 4 ozs.; Terra Merita, 3 ozs.; Saffron, 8 grs.; Pul- 
verized Glass, 12 ozs. 

No. 79. Brown Bronze Dip.— Iron Scales, 1 lb.; Arsenic, 1 oz. 
Muriatic Acid, 1 lb.; Zinc, (solid,) 1 oz. 

Let the Zinc be kept in only while it is in use. 

No. 80. Green Bronze Dip.— Wine Vinegar, 2 qts.; Verditer Green, 
2 ozs.; Sal Ammoniac, 1 oz ; Salt, 2 ozs.; Alum, J oz.; French Berries, 
8 ozs.; boil the ingredients together. 

No. 81. Aquafortis Bronze Dip.— Nitric Acid, 8 ozs.; Muriatic 
A-cid, 1 qt.; Sal Ammoniac, 2 ozs.; Alum, I oz.; Salt, 2 ozs.3 Water, 2 galls. 
Add the 'Salt after boiling the other ingredients, and uie it hot. 



BRONZES, SILVERING, AND VARNISHES. 95 

No. 82. Olive Bronze Dip, /or Brass. — Nitric Acid, 3 czs ; Mnri 
atic Acid, 2 ozs.3 add Titanium or Palladium ; when the metal is dissolveo 
add 2 galls, pure soft water to each pint of the solution; 

No. 83. BuowN Bronze Paint, for Copper Vessels. — Tincture 01 
Steel, 4 ozs. 5 Spirits of Nitre, 4 ozs. 3 Essence of Dendi, 4 ozs. ; Blue 
Vitriol, 1 0Z.5 Water, h pint. 

Mix in a bottle. Appl/ it with a fine brush, the vessel being lull of boiling water 
Varnish after the application of the bronze. 

No. 81. Bronze, /or all kinds of Metal. — Muriate of Ammonia ^Sal 
Ammoninc), 4 drs.; Oxalic Acid, 1 dr.3 Vinegar, 1 pint. 

Dissolve the Oxalic Acid first. Let the work be clean.* Put on the bronze with a 
bru.sh, repeating the operation as many times as may be necessary. 

No. 85 Bronze Paint, /or Iron or Brass. — Chrome Green, 2 lbs.; 
Iv^ory Black, 1 oz.j Chrome Yellow, 1 oz. 3 Good Japan, 1 gill 3 grind all 
together and mix with Linseed Oil. 

No ^6. To Bronze Gun Barrels. — Dilute Nitric Acid with Water 
and rub the gun barrels with it 3 lay them by for a few days, then rub them 
with Oil and polish them with bees-wax. 

No. 87. For Tinning Brass. — Water, 2 pails full 3 Cream of Tar- 
tar, 1-2 lb.5 Salt, 1-2 pint. 

Shaved or Grained Tin. — Boil the work in the mixture, keeping it in motion during 
the time of boiling. 

No. 88. Silvering by Heat. — Dissolve 1 oz. of Silver in Nitric 
Acid 3 add a small quantity of Salt 5 then wash it and add Sal Ammoniac, 
or 6 ozs. of Salt and White Vitriol 3 also J oz-. of Corrosive Sublimate, rub 
them together till they form a paste, rub the piece which is to be Silvered 
with the paste, heat it lill the Silver runs, after which dip it in a weak vitriol 
pickle to clean it. 

No. 89, Mixture for Silvering. — Dissolve 2 ozs. of Silver with 
3 grains of Corrosive Sublimate 3 add Tartaric Acid, 4 lbs.3 Salt, 8 qts. 

No. 90. Separate Silver from Copper. — Mix Sulphuric Acid, 
1 part 3 Nitric Acid, 1 part 5 Water, 1 part 5 boil the metal in the mixture 
till it is dissolved, and throw in a little Salt to cause the Silver to subside. 

No. 91. Solvent for Gold. — Mix equal quantities of Nitric and 
Muriatic Acids. 

No. 92. Varnish, for Smooth Moulding Patterns. — Alcohoi, 1 gall.; 
Shell Lac, 1 lb.3 Lamp or Ivory Black, sufficient to color it. 

No 93. Fine Black Varnish, /or Coaches. — Melt in an Iron pot, 
Amber, 32 ozs.3 Resin, 6 ozs. 3 Asphaltum, 6 ozs. 5 Drying Linseed Oil, \ pt.j 
when partly cooled add Od of Turpentine, wormed, 1 pt. 

No. 9k Chinese White Copper. —Copper, 40.4 3 Nickel, 3I.63 
Zinc, 25.43 ^"(^ Uow, 2.6 parts. 

No. 95. Manheim Gold. — Copper, 33 Zinc, 1 part3 and a small 
quantity of Tin. 

No. 96. Alloy of the Standard Measures used by the 
British Government. — Copper, 576 3 Tin, 59 3 ^"<^1 Brass, 48 parts. 

No. 97. Bath Metal. — Brass, 32 3 and Zinc, 9 parts. 

No. 98. Speculum Metal. — Copper,63 Tin,23 and Arsenic, 1 part 
Or, Copper, 7 3 Zinc, 3 3 and Tin, 4 parts. 

No. 99. Hard Solder. — Copper, 23 Zinc, 1 part. 

No. 100. Blanched Copper. — Copper, 83 and Arsenic, A part. 

No. lOL Britannia Metal. — Brass, 43 Tin, 4partS3 when fused, 
add Bismuth. 4 3 and Antimony, 4 parts. 

This composition is added at discretion to melted Tin. 



96 SOLDERS AND CEMENTS. 

No. 102. Plumber's Solder.— Lead, 2} Tin, 1 part. 

No. 103. Tinman's Solder.-— Lead, i ; Tin, 1 part. 

No. 104. Pewterer's Solder. — Tin, 2 5 Lead, 1 part. 

No. 105. Common Pewter. — Tin, 45 Lead, 1 part. 

No. 106. Best Pewter. — Tin, 100 5 Antimony, 17 parts. 

No. 107. A Metal that Expands in Cooling. — Lead, 9 5 Anti- 
mony, 2 •, Bismuth, 1 part. 

This Metal is very useful in filling small defects in Iron castings, &c. 

No. 108. Queen's Metal. — Tin, 93 Antimony, I3 Bismuth, 1 ; 
Lead, 1 part. 

No. 109. Mock Platinum. — Brass, 8 5 Zinc, 5 parts. 

No. 110. Silver Coin of the United States. — Pure Silver, 
95 Alloy, 1 part 3 the alloy of silver is fine copper. 

No. 111. Gold Coin of the United States. — Pure Gold, 9 ; 
Alloy. 1 part 3 the alloy of gold is 5 silver and | copper, (not to exceed ^ 
silver). 

No. 112. Silver Coin of Great Britain. — Pure Silver, 11.1 3 
Copper, 9.9 parts. 

No. 1)3. Gold Coin of Great Britain. — Pure Gold, 11 5 Copper, 
1 part. 

Previous to 1826, Silver formed part of tlie alloy of Gold coin ; hence the different color 
of English Gold money. 

No. 114. Ring Gold. — Pure Copper, 6^ pwts.3 Fine Silver, 3ipwts.5 
Pure Gold, 1 oz. and 5 pwts. 

No. 115. Mock Gold. — Fuse together Copper, I63 Platinum, 73 
Zinc, 1 part. 

When Steel is alloyed wiiJi 1-500 part of Platinum, or with 1-500 part of Silver, it is 
rendered much harder, more malleable, and better adapted for every kind of cutting 
instrument. 

Note. — In making alloys, care must be taken to have the more infusible metals melted 
first, and afterwards add the others. 

No. 116. Composition Used in Welding Cast Steel. — Borax, 

10 5 Sal Ammoniac, 1 part 3 grind or pound them roughly together 3 then 
fuse them in a metal pot over a clear fire, taking care to continue the heat 
until all spume has disappeared from the surface. When the liquid appears 
clear, the composition is ready to be poured out to cool and concrete 3 
afterwards being ground to a fine powder, it is ready for use. 

To tise this composition, the Steel to be welded is raised to a heat which may be 
expressed by "bright yellow;" it is then dipped among the welding powder, and again 
placed in the tire until it attains the same degree of heat as before, it is then ready to be 
placed under the hammer. 

No. 117. Cast Iron Cement. — Clean borings, or turnings, of Cast 
Iron, 16 5 Sal Ammoniac, 23 Flour of Sulphur, 1 part 5 mix them well to- 
gether in a mortar and keep them dry. When required for use, take of the 
mixture, 1 ; clean borings, 20 parts 3 mix thoroughly, and add a sufficient 
quantity of water. 

A little grindstone dust added improves the cement. 

No. 118. Booth's Patent Grease, /or Railway Axles. — Water, I 
gall. 3 Clean Tallow, 3 lbs. 3 Palm Oil, 6 lbs. 3 Common Soda, ^ lb. Or, 
Tallow, 8 lbs.; Palm Oil. 10." 

The mixture to be heated to about 210® F., and well stirred till it cools down to about 
rO'', when it is ready for use. 

No. 119. Cement, for Steam-pipe Joints, (^c, with Faced Flanges. — 
White Lead, mixed, 2 3 Ked Lead, dry, 1 part 3 grind or otherwise mix them 
to a consistence of thin putty, apply interposed layers with one or two 
thicknesses of canvas or gauze wire, as the necessity of the case may be. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER; ZINC, AND TIN. 



97 



No. 120. Soft Cement^ for Steam-boilers, Steam-pipes, 8^c. — Red 
or White Lead, in oil, 4 3 Iron borings, 2 to 3 parts. 

No. 121. Hard Cement. — Iron Borings and Salt Water, and a small 
quantity of Sal Ammoniac with Fresh Water. 

No. 122. Staining Wood and Ivoky. — Yelloiu. — Dilute INitric Acid 
will produce it on wood. 

' Red. — An infusion of Brazil Wood in stale urine, in the proportion of a 
pound to a gallon for wood 5 to be laid on when boiling hot, and should be 
laid over with alum water before it dries. Or, a solution of Dragon's Blood 
in spirits of wine, may be used. 

Black. — Strong solution of Nitric Acid, for woocfor ivory. 

Mahogany. — Brazil, Madder, and Logwood, dissolved in water and put 
on hot. 

Blue. — Ivory may be stained thus : Soak it in a solution of Verdigris in 
Nitric Acid, which will turn it green ; then dip it into a solution of Pearlash 
boiling hot. 

Purple. — Soak ivory in a solution of Sal Ammoniac into four times its 
weight of Nitrous Acid. 

TABLE OF ALLOYS. 



Alloys having a density greater than the 
Mean of their Constituents, 



Gold and zinc. 
Gold and tin. 
Gold and bismuth. 
Gold and antimony 
Gold and ccbalt. 
Silver and zinc. 
Silver and lead. 
Silver and tin. 
Silveraud bismuth 



Silver & antimony. 
Copper and zinc. 
Copper and iin.[um 
Copper and palladi- 
Copper & bismuth. 
Lead and antimony 
Platinum & molyb- 
denum, [muth. 
Palladium and bis- 



Alloys having a density less than the Mean 
of their Constituents. 



Gold and silver. 
Gold and iron. 
Gold and lead. 
Gold and copper. 
Gold and iridium. 
Gold and nickel. 
Silver and copper. 
Silver and lead. 



Iron and bismuth. 
Iron and antimony. 
Iron and lead. 
Tin and lead. 
Tin and palladium. 
Tin and antimony. 
Nickel and arsenic. 
Zinc and antimony. 



ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC, 


AND OF COPPER AND TIN. 


Composition by 
Weight per cent. 


Specific 
Gravity. 


Colour. 


Ultimate 
Cohesive 
Strength of 
an In. square 
Bar. in Tons. 


Characteristic Properties, &c. 


Copper 


8067 


Tile red. 


24.6 


Malleable. 


100,00 Zinc 


6895 


Bluish grey. 


15.2 


Brittle. • 


83.02-1- 16.98 


8415 


Yellowish red. 


13.7 


Bath metal. 


79.G5-f 20.35 


8448 


do. do. 


14.7 


Dutch brass. 


74.58+25.42 


8397 


Pale yellow. 


13.1 


Rolled sheet brass. 


60.18+33.82 


8299 


Full yellow. 


12.5 


British brass. 


49.47+50.53 


8230 


do. do. 


9.2 


German brass. 


32.85+G7.15 


8283 


Deep yellow. 


19.3 


Watchmakers' brass. 


30,3.0+09.70 


7836 


Silver white. 


2.2 


Very brittle. 


24.50+75.50 


7449 


Ash grey. 


3.1 


Britilo. 


19.05+80.35 


7371 


do. 


1.9 


White button metal. 


Tin 


7291 


AVhite. 


2.7 




84.29+15.71 


8561 


Reddish yellow. 


16.1 


Gun metal. 


81.10+18.90 


8159 


Yellowish red. 


17.7 


Gun metal and bronze. 


78.97+21.03 


8728 


do. do. 


13.6 


Hard, mill brasses. 


34.92+05.08 


8065 


AVhite. 


1.4 


Small bells. 


15.17+81.83 


7417 


Very white. 


3.1 


Speculum metal. 


11.82+88.18 


7472 


do. do. 


3.1 


Files, louijh. 



Note. — No simple binary alloy of copper and zinc, or of copper and tin, works 
as pleasantly in turninc^, planing, or fdini::, as if combined wiih a small propor- 
tion of a third fusible metal; generally lead is added to copper and znic, and 
zinc to copper and tin. 



98 ALLOYS FOR BRONZE. YALUABLE ALLOYS. 

To Polish Brass. — When the Brass is made smooth by turning" or 
filing with a very line file, it may be rubbed with a smooth fine grained 
stone, or with charcoal and water. When it is made quite smooth and free 
from scratches it may be polished with rotten stone and oil, alcohol or spirits 
t)f turpentine. 

To Clean Brass. — If there is any oily substance on the Brass boil 
it in a solution of potash, or strong lye. Mix equal quantities of Nitric 
and Sulphuric Acids in a stone or earthem vessel, let it stand a few hours, 
stirring it occasionally with a stick, then dip the Brass in the solution, 
but take it out immediately and rinse it in soft water, and wipe it in saw 
dust till it is dry. 

Glue. — Powdered Chalk added to common Glue strengthens it. A 
Glue which \^'ill resist the action of water is made by boiling 1 pound of 
Glue in 2 quarts of skimmed* Milk. 

ALLOYS FOR BRONZE. 

Professor Hoffman, of the Prussian artillery, has made experiments with 
the view of obtaining a good statuary bronze, and recommends tliQ alloys 
ranging between the two following admixtures : — 
1st. To produce the reddest bronze. 

88.75 Copper Zinc {7 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc). 
11.25 Copper Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin). 

100-00 



2nd. To produce a cheap bronze, with a bright yellow color, almost 
golden. 
93.5 Copper Zinc (2 atoms copper, 1 atom zinc). 
6.5 Copper Tin (3 atoms copper, 1 atom tin). 



100.0 



VALUABLE ALLOYS. 

• The " Paris Scientific Review" has published, for the benefit of the 
industrious workers in metals, the best receipts for composing all the various 
factitious metals used in the arts 3 the following are a few : — 

Statuary Bronze. — Daroet has discovered that this is composed of 
copper, 91.45 zinc, 5.5 5 lead, I.73 tin, 1.4. 

Bronze for Cannon of Large Calibre. — Copper, 90 5 tin, 7. 

Pinchbeck. — Copper, 5 3 zinc, 1. 

Bronze for Cannon of Small Calibre. — Copper, 983 tin, 7. 

Bronze for Mepals.— Copper, 100 3 tin, 8. 

Alloy for Cymbals.— Copper, 80 5 tin, 20. 

Metal for the Mirrors of Reflecting Telescopes. — Copper, 
100 3 tin, 50. 

White Argentan. — Copper, 83 nickel, 83 zinc, 35 3 ^^is beautiful 
composition is in imitation of silver. 

Chinese Silver. — M. Mairer discovered the following proportions : — 
Silver, 2.53 copper, 65.24 3 zinc, 19.52 5 nickel, 185 cobalt of iron, 0.12. 

TuTENAG.— Copper, 83 nickel, 85 zinc, 5. 

Printing Characters. — Lead, 45 antimony, 1. For stereotype 
plates — Lead, 9 3 antimony, 2 3 bismuth, 2. 



MECHANICAL DRAWING 



AND 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 



INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 



101 



B 




INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 

To facilitate the construction of geometrical figures, we add a short de- 
scription of a few useful instruments which do not belong to the common 
pocket-case. 

Let there be a flat ruler^, AB, from one to two feet in 
length, for which the common Gunter's scale may be sub- 
stituted J and, secondly, a triangular piece of wood, a, -6, c, 
flat, and about the same thickness as the ruler : the sides, 
ab and be, of which are equal to one another, and form a 
right angle at Z>. For the convenience of sliding, there is 
usually a hole in the middle of the triangle, as may be seen in the figure. 

By means of these simple instruments many very useful geometrical 
problems may be performed. Thus, to draw a line through a given point 
parallel to a given line. Lay the triangle on the paper so that one of its 
sides will coincide with the given line to which the parallel is to be drawn 5 
then, keeping the triangle steady, lay the ruler on the paper, with its edge 
applied to either of the other sides of the triangle ; then, keeping the ruler 
firm, move the triangle along its edge, up or down, to the given point ; the 
side of the triangle which was placed on the given line will always keep 
parallel to itself, and hence a parallel may be drawn through the given point. 

To erect a perpendicular on a given line, and from any given point in 
that line, we have only to apply the ruler to the given line, and place the 
triangle so, that its right angle shall touch the given point in the line, and 
one of the sides about the right angle, placed to the edge of the ruler — the 
other side will give the perpendicular required. 

If the given point be either above or below the line, the process is equally- 
easy. Place one of the sides of the triangle about the right angle on the 
given line, and the ruler on the side opposite the right angle, then slide the 
triangle on the edge of the ruler till the given point from which, the perpen- 
dicular is to be drawn is on the other side, then this side will give the per- 
pendicular. 

Other problems may be performed with these instruments, the method of 
doing which it will be easy for the reader to contrive for himself. 

When arcs of circles of great diameter are to be drawn, the use of a 
compass may be substituted by a very simple contrivance. Draw the chord 
of the arc to be described, and place a pin at each 
extremity, A and B, then place two rulers jointed 
at C, and forming an angle, ACB equal to the sup- 
plement of half the given number of degrees ; that 
is to say, the number ot degrees which the arc 
whose chord given is to contain, is to be halved, and this half being sub- 
tracted from 180 degrees, will give the degrees which form the angle at 
which the rulers are placed, that is, the angle ACB. This being done, the 




102 INSTRUMENTS USED IN DRAWING. 

edges of the rulers are moved along against the pinS; and a pencil at C will 
describe the arc required. 

Large circles may be described by a contrivance equally simple. On 
an axle; a foot or a foot and a hall long, there are placed two 
wheels, M and F, of which one is fixed to the axle^ namely F, 
and the other is capable of being shifted to different parts of ] 
the axlC; and^ by means of a thumb-screw, made capable of 
being fixed at any point on the axle. These wheels are of dif- 
ferent diameters, say of 3 and 6 inches, the fixed wheel F being the largest. 
This instrument being moved on the paper, the circles M and F will roll, 
and describe circles of different radii : the axle will always point to the 
centre of these circles, and there will be this proportion : 

As the diameter of the large wheel is to the difference of the diameters 
of the two wheels, so is the radius of the circle to be described by the large 
wheel to the distance of the two wheels on the axle. 

If the diameters of the wheels are as above stated, and it is required to 
describe a circle of 3 feet radius, then from the above proportion we have 
6:6 — 3 : : 3 feet or 36 inches : 18 inches = the distance of the two wheels, 
to describe a circle 6 feet in diameter. 

It may be observed, that it will be best to make the difference of the 
wheels greater if large circles are to be described, as then a shorter instru- 
ment will serve the purpose. 

We will conclude these instructions, by making a few remarks on the 
Diagonal Scale and Sector, the great use of the latter of which, especially, 
is seldom explained to the young mechanic. 

The diagonal scale to be found on the plain scale in common pocket- 
cases of instruments, is a contrivance for measuring very small divisions of 
lines ; as, for instance, hundredth parts of an inch. 

Suppose the accompanying cut to represent an enlarged B E A 
view of two divisions of the diagonal scale, and the bottom and Y 
top lines to be divided into two parts, each representing the si- 
tenth part of an inch. Now, the perpendicular lines JBC, AD, 4* 
are each divided into ten equal parts, which are joined by the g 
crossing lines, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c., and the diagonals BF, DE, are 

drawn as in the figure. Now, as the division FC is the tenth 

10 

part of an inch, and as the line FB continually approaches C F D 

nearer and nearer to BC, till it meets it in B, it will follow, that the part of 
the line 1 cut off by this diagonal will be a tenth part of FC, because Bl is 
only one-tenth part of BC 3 so, likewise, 2 will represent two-tenth parts, 
3 three-tenth parts, and so on to 9, which is nine-tenth parts, and 10^ ten- 
itenth parts, or the whole tenth of an inch 3 so that, by means of this diago- 
nal, we arrive at divisions equal to tenth parts of tenth parts of an inch, or 
hundredths of an inch. With this consideration, an examination of the 
scale itself will easily show the whole matter. It may be observed, 



\ 


\ 


,1\ 


\ 


^i-\ — 


\ 


jl \ 


\ 


J \ 


\ 


Jl \ 


\ 




\ 




\ 


'1 \ 


\ 



THE SECTOR. ' 103 

that if half an inch and the quarter of an inch be divided^ in the same man- 
ner, into tenths and tenths of tenths, we may g-et thus two-hundredth and 
four-hundredth parts of an inch. 

THE SECTOR. 

This very useful instrument consists of two equal rulers each six inches 
long, joined together by a brass folding joint. These rulers are generally 
made of boxwood or ivory; and on the face of the instrument, several lines 
or scales are engraven. Some of these lines or scales proceed from the 
centre of the joint, and are called sectorial lines ^ to distinguish them from 
others which are drawn parallel to the edg-e of the instrument, similar to 
those on the common Gunter's scale. 

The sectorial lines are drawn twice on the same face of the instrument; 
that is to say, each line is drawn on both leg's. Those on each face are, 

A scale of equal parts, marked L, 

A line of chords, marked C, 

A line of secants, marked S, 

A line of polygons, marked P, or Pol. 
These sectorial lines are marked on one face of the instrument; and on the 
other there are the following ; 

A line of sines, marked S, 

A line of tangents, marked T, 

A line of tangents to a less radius, marked t. 
This last line is intended to supply the defect of the former, and extends 
from about 45 to 75. degrees. 

The lines of chords, sines, tangents, and secants, but not the line of poly- 
gons, are numbered from the centre, and are so disposed as to form equal 
angles at the centre; and it follows from this, that at whatever distance the 
sector is opened, the angles which the lines form, will alwaj's be respectively 
equal. The distance, therefore, between 10 and 10, on the two lines marked 
L, will be equal to the distance of 69 and 60 on the two lines of chords, and 
also to 90 and 90 on the two lines of sines, &c. at any particular opening- of 
the sector. 

Any extent measured with a pair of compasses, from the centre of the 
joint to any division on the sectorial lines, is called a lateral disfavce ; and 
any extent taken from a point in a line on the one leg, to the like point on 
the similar line on the other leg-, is called a transverse or parallel distance. 

With these remarks, we shall now proceed to explain the use of the sec- 
tor, in so far as it is likely to be serviceable to mechanics.; 

USE OF THE LINE OF LINES. 

This line, as was before observed, is marked L, and its uses arc, 
To Divide a line into any number of equal parts : Take the length of (he 
line by the compasses, and placing one of the points on that number in the 



104 THE SECTOR. 

line of lines which denotes the number of parts into which the given line is 
to be divided, open the sector till the other point of the compasses touches 
the same division on the line of lines marked on the other leg; then, the 
sector being kept at the same width, the distance from 1 on the line L on 
the one leg, to 1 on the line L on the other, will give the length of one of 
the equal divisions of the given line to be divided. Thus, to divide a given 
line into seven equal parts : — take the length of the given line with the com- 
passes, and setting one point on 7, on the line L of one of the legs, move 
the other leg out until the other point of the compasses touch 7 on the line 
L of that leg; this may be called the transverse distance of 7 on the line of 
lines. Now, keeping the sector at the same opening, the transverse distance 
of 1 will be the length of one of the 7 equal divisions of the given line; the 
transverse distance of 2 will be two of these divisions, &c. 

It will sometimes happen, that the line to be divided will be too long for 
the largest opening of the sector ; and in this case we take the half, or third, 
or fourth of the line, as the case may be ; then the transverse distance of 1 to 
1, will be a half, a third, or a fourth of the required equal part. 

To divide a given line into any number of parts that shall have a certain 
relation or proportion to each other : Take the length of the whole line to be 
divided, and placing one point of the compasses at that division on the line 
of lines on one leg of the instrument which expresses the sum of all the 
parts into which the given line is to be divided, and open the sector till the 
other point of the compasses is on the corresponding division on the line of 
hnes of the other leg. This is evidently making the sum of the parts into 
which the given line is to be divided a transverse distance ; and when this 
is done, the proportional parts will be found by taking, with the same open- 
ing of the sector, the transverse distances of the parts required, — To divide 
a given line into three parts, in the proportion of 2, 3, 4: The sum of these 
is 9 ; make the given line a transverse distance between 9 and 9 on the two 
lines of lines ; then the transverse distances of the several numbers 2, 3, 4, 
will give the proportional parts required. 

To find a fourth proportional to three given lines : take the lateral distance 
of the second, and make it the transverse distance of the first, then will ihe 
transverse distance of the third be the lateral distance of the fourth; then, 
let there be given 6:3:: 8, — make the lateral distance of 3 the transverse 
distance of 6; then will the transverse distance of 8 be the lateral distance 
of 4, the fourth proportional required. 

This sector will be found highly serviceable in drawing plans. For in- 
stance, if it is wished to reduce the drawing of a steam engine from a scale 
of 1 J inches to the foot, to another of five-eighths to the foot. Now, in 1 J 
inches there are 12 eighth parts ; so that the drawing will be reduced in the 
proportion of 12 to 5. Take the lateral distance of o, and keep the com- 
passes at this opening; then open the sector till the points of the compasses 
mark the transverse distance of 12 3 keep now the sector at this opening, 



MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 105 

and any measure taken on the dpawing, to be copied and laid off on the 
sector as a lateral distance^ — the transverse distance taken from that point 
will give the corresponding measure to be laid down in the new drawing; 

If the length of the side of a triangle, of which we have the drawing, is 
to be reckoned 45 3 what are the lengths of the other two sides ? Take the 
length of the side given, by the compasses, and open the sector till the meas- 
ure be the transverse distance of 45 to 45 3 then the lengths of the other 
sides being applied transversely, will give their numerical lengths. 

USE OF THE LINE OF CHORDS. 

By means of the sector, we may dispense with the protractor. Thus, to 
lay down an angle of any number of degrees : — take the radius of the circle 
on the compasses, and open the sector till this becomes the transverse dis- 
tance of 60 on the line of chords 5 then take the transverse distance of the 
required number of degrees, keeping the sector at the same opening 3 and 
this transverse distance being marked off on an arc of the circle whose ra- 
dius was taken, will be the required number of degrees. 

We will not enter farther on the use of the sectorial lines, as what 
we have said will, we hope, be found sufficient for the purposes of the 
practical mechanic. 

MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

A FLAT rectangular board is first to be provided, of any convenient size, 
as from 18 to 30 inches, and from 16 to 24 inches broad. It may be made 
of fir, plane tree, or mahogany 3 its face must be plqned smooth and flat, 
and the sides and ends as nearly as possible at right angles to each other — 
the bottom of the board and the left side should be made perfectly so 3 and 
this corner should be marked, so that the stock of the square may be always 
applied to the bottom and left hand side of the board. To prevent the 
board from casting, it is usual to pannel it on the back or on the sides. 

A T square must also be provided, which by means of a thumb-screw 
fixed in the stock, may be made to answer either the purposes of a com- 
mon square, or bevel,— the one-half of the stock being movable about the 
screw, and the other fixed at right angles on the blade. The blade ought 
to be somewhat flexible, and equal in length to the length of the board. 

Besides these, there will be required a case of mathematical instrumeHtS5 
in the selection of which it should be observed, that the bow compass is 
more frequently defective than any of the other instruments. After using 
any of the ink feet, they should be dried 3 and if they do not draw properly, 
they ought to be sharpened and brought to an equal length in the blade, by 
grinding on a hone. 

The colors most useful are, Indian ink, gamboge, Prussian bine, vermil- 
ion, and lake. With these, all colors necessary for drawing nuu'lunt'ry or 
buildings may be made 5 so that, instead of purchasing a box of colors, we 



106 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

would advise that those for whom this book is intended should procure 
these cakes separately : the g-amboge may be bought from an apothecary — 
a pennyworth will serve a lifetime. In choosing- the rest, they should be 
rubbed against the teeth, and those which feel smoothest are of the best 
quality. 

Hair pencils will also be necessary, made of camel's hair, and of various 
sizes. They ought to taper gradually to a point when wet in the mouth, 
and should, after being pressed against the finger, spring back. 

Black-lead pencils will also be necessary. They ought not to be very 
soft, nor so hard that their traces cannot be easily erased by the Indian 
rubber. In choosing paper, that which will best suit this kind of drawing- 
is thick, and has a hardish feel, not very smooth on the surface, yet free 
from knots. 

The paper on which the drawing is to be made, must be chosen of a 
good quality and convenient size. It is then to be wet with a sponge and 
clean water, on the opposite side from that on which the drawing is to be 
made. When the paper absorbs the water, which may be seen by the wet- 
ted side becoming dim, as its surface is viewed slantwise against the light, 
it is to be laid on the drawing board with the wetted side next the board. 
About half an inch must be turned up on a straight edge all round the 
paper, and then fastened on the board. This is done because the paper 
when wet is enlarged, and the edg-es being fixed on the board, act as stretch- 
ers when the paper contracts by drying. To prevent the paper from con- 
tracting before the paste has been sufficiently fastened by drying, the paper 
is usually wet on the upper surface, to within half an inch of the paste mark. 
When the paper is thoroughly dried, it will be found to lie firmly and equally 
on the board, and is then fit for use. 

If the drawing is to be made from a copy, we ought first to consider what 
scale it is to be drawn to. If it is to be equal in size to, or larger than the 
copy, a scale should be made accordingly, by which the dimensions of 
the several parts of the drawing are to be regulated. The diagonal scale, 
a simple and beautiful contrivance, will be here found of great use for the 
more minute divisions 5 and whenever the drawing is to be made to a scale 
of 1 inch, 4 inch, | inch, to the foot, a scale should be drawn of 20 or 30 
equal parts 3 the last of which should be subdivided into 12, and a diagonal 
scale formed on the same principles as the common one, but with eight 
parallels and 12 diagonals, to express inches and eighths of an inch. For 
making such scales to any proportion, the line L on the sector will be found 
very convenient. 

Great care should be taken in the penciling, that an accurate outline be 
drawn, for on this much of the value of the picture will depend. The pen- 
cil marks should be distinct, yet not heavy, and the use of the rubber avoided 
as much as possible, as its frequent application ruffles the surface of the 
paper. The methods already given for constructing geometrical figures 




MECHANICAL DEAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 107 

will be here found applicable, and the use of the T square, parallel ruler, 
&LC., will suggest themselves whenever they require to be employed. 

The drawing thus made of any machine or building is called a plan. 
Plans are of three kinds— a ground plan, or bird's-eye view, an elevation or 
front view, and a perspective plan. 

When a view is taken of the teeth of a wheel, with the circumference 
towards the eye, the teeth appear to be nearer as they are removed from 
the middle point of the circumference opposite the eye, and it may not be 
out of place here to give the method of representing them on paper : — If 
AB be the circumference of a wheel as viewed by 
the eye, and it is required to represent the teeth as 
they appear on it, only half of the circumference can 
be seen in this way at one time, consequently we can Ajj 
only represent the half of the teeth. On AB describe 
a semicircle, which divide into half as many equal parts as the wheel has 
te6th; then from each of these points of division draw perpendiculars to the 
wheel AB, then will these perpendiculars mark the relative places of the 
teeth. 

When the outline is completed in pencil, it is next to be carefully gone 
over with Indian ink, which is to be rubbed down with a little water, on a 
plate of glass or ealhernware — so as to be sufficiently fluid to flow easily 
out of the pen, and at the same time have a sufficient body of color. While 
drawing the ink lines, the measurements should be repeated, so as to cor- 
rect any error that may have occurred during the penciling. The screw in 
the drawing pen will regulate the breadth of the strokes 3 which should not 
be alike heavy 3 those strokes being the heaviest which bound the dark part 
of the shades. Should any line be wrong drawn with the ink, it may be 
taken out by means of a sponge and water, which could not be done if 
common writing ink were employed. 

In preparing for coloring it is to be observed, that a hair pencil is to be 
fixed at each end of a small piece of wood, made in the form of a common 
pencil, one of which is to be used with color, and the other with water only. 
If the color is to be laid on, so as to represent a flat surface, it ought to be 
spread on equally, and there is here no use for the water brush; but if it is 
to represent a curved surface, then the color is to be laid on tlie part in- 
tended to be shaded, and softened towards the light by washing with the 
water brush. In all cases it should be borne in mind, that the color ought 
to be laid on very thin, otherwise it will be more difficult to manage, and 
will never make so fine a drawing. 

In colors even of the best quality, we sometimes meet with gritty particles, 
which it is desirable to avoid. Instead of rubbing the color on a plate with 
a little water, as is usual, it will be better to wet the color, and rub it on the 
point of the forefinger, letting the dissolved part drop off the finger on to 
the plate. 



108 MECHANICAL DRAWING AND PERSPECTIVE. 

In using the Indian ink, it will be found advantngcous to mix it with a 
lillle blue and a small quantity of lake, which renders it much more easily 
wrought with, and this is the more desirable as it is the most frcquenll}- used 
of all the other colors in Mechanical Drawing, the shades being all made 
with this color. 

The depth and extent of the shades will depend on various circumstan- 
ces — on the figure ofthe object to be shaded, the position of the eye of the 
observer, and the direction in which the light comes, &lc. The |)osilion of 
the eye will vary the proportionate size of an>' object in a picture when 
drawn in perspective. Thus, if a perspective view of a steam engine is 
given, the eye being supposed to be placed opposite the end nearest the 
nozzles, an inch ofthe nozzle rod will appear much larger than an incli of 
the pump rod which feeds the cistern 5 but if the eye is supposed to be placed 
opposite the other end of the engine, the reverse will be the case. But in 
drawing elevations and ground plans of machinery, every part of the ma- 
chine is drawn to the proper scale — an inch or foot in one part of the ma- 
chine, being just the same size as an inch or foot in any other part of the 
machine. So that by measuring the dimensions of any part ofthe drawing, 
and then applying the compass to the scale, we determine the real size of 
the part so measured. Whereas, if the view were given in perspective, we 
would be ol)liged to make allowance for the effect of distance, &c. 

The light is always supposed to fall on the picture at an angle of forty- 
five degrees, from which it follows, that the shade of any object, which is 
intended to rise from the plane ofthe picture, or appear prominent, will just 
be equal in length to the prominence ofthe object. 

The shades, therefore, should be as exitictly measured as any other pnrt 
ofthe drawing, and care should be taken that they all fall in the j)ropcr di- 
Fection, as the light is supposed to come from one point only. 

It is frequently of great use for the mechanic to take a hasty copy of a 
drawing, and many methods have been given for this purpose — by machines, 
tracing, Sec. We give the following as easy, accurate, and convenient. 

Mix equal parts of turpentine and drying oil, and with a rag lay it on a 
sheet of good silk paper, allowing the paper to lie by for two or three days 
to dry, ami when it is so it will be fit for use. To use it, lay it on the draw- 
ing to be copied, and the prepared paper being nearly transparent, the lines 
of the tlrawing will be seen through it, and may be easily traced witli a 
black-lead pencil. The lines on the oiled paper will be quite distinct when 
it is laid on white paper. Thus, if the mechanic has little time to s])aro, he 
may take a copy and lay it by to be recopied at his leisure. 

Care and perseverance arc the chief requisites for attaining perfection in 
this species of drawing. Every mechanic should know something of it, so 
that he may the better understand how to execute plans that may be sub- 
mitted to him, or make intelligible to others any invention he himself may 
make. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Geometry is tlic science wliicli investi;j;ates and deirionstrates the 
properties of lines on surfaces Jind solids : hence, l*RA(;Ti(.'Aii Ok- 
OMKTitY is the niel.lio<.l ()ra|)|)Iyiii;i; llic rules ol' the science to practical 
purposes. 



10 



110 DEFINITIONS OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS. 

DEFINITION OF ARITHMETICAL SIGNS USED IN 
THE WORK. 

= When we wish to state that one quantit}' or number, is equal to 
another quantity or number, the sign of equality = is employed. Thus 
3 added to 2 = 0. or 3 added to 2 is equal to o. 

+ When the sum of two quantities or numbers is to be taken, the sign 
plus + is placed between them. Thus 3 + 2 = 03 ^^^^^ is, the sum of 3 
and 2 is 5. This is the sign of Addition. 

— When the difference of two numbers or quantities is to be taken, the 
sign minus — is used, and shows that the latter number or quantity is to be 
taken from the former. Thus 5 — 2 = 3. This is the sign of Subtraction, 

X When the product of any two numbers or quantities is to be taken, 
the sign into X is placed between them. Thus 3x2 = 6. This is the 
sign of Multiplication. 

-T- When we are to take the quotient of two quantities, the sign by -~- is 
placed between them, and shows that the former is to be divided by the 
latter. Thus 6-4-2 = 3* This is the sign of Division. But in some cases 
in this work, the mode of division has been, to place the dividend above a 
horizontal linO; and the divisor below it, in the form of a vulgar fraction^ 
thus : 

Dividend ^ . 6 „ 

■^. . = Quotient. — = 3. 

Divisor 2 

When the square of any number 'or quantity is to be taken, this is de- 
noted by placing a small figure 2 above it to the right. Thus 6^ shows that 
the square of 6 is to be taken, and therefore 6- = 6 X 6 = 36. 

When we wish to show that the square root of any number or quantity is 
to bo taken, this is denoted by placing the radical sign ^/ before it. Thus 
s/36 shows that the square root of 36 ought to be taken, hence a/36 = 6. 

The common marks of proportion are also used, viz., : : : : as 
3:6 : : 4 ; 8, being read 3 is to 6 as 4 is to 8. 

The application of these signs to the expression of rules is exceedingly 
simple. Thus, connected with the circle we have the following rules : 

1st. The circumference of a circle will be found by multiplying the di- 
ameter by 3-1416. 

2d. The diameter of a circle may be found by dividing the circumfer- 
ence by 3-1416. 

3d. The area of a circle may be found by multiplying the half of the di- 
ameter, by the 'half of the circumference, or by multiplying together the 
diameter and circumference, and dividing the product by 4, or by squaring 
the diameter and multiplying by 7804. 

Now all these rules may be thus expressed : 

1st. diameter X 3-1416 = circumference. 

_, circumference 



3d. 

or. 



diameter circumference 

2 ^ 2 '' 

diameter X circumference 

4 ' 

diameter^ x -7854 = area. 



PEACTICAL GEOMETEY. 



Practical Geometry is an important branch of knowledge to all who 
are in any way engaged in the art of building. The workman, as well 
as the designer, requires its aid ; and unless he is acquainted with 
some of the leading principles of the science, he will frequently feel 
an uncertainty as to the results he may deduce from the problems 
which are presented to his notice. 



Problem I. 
To inscribe an Equilateral Triangle within a given Circle, 
h^t A B c be a circle ; it is required to draw within it a triangle 
Fig. 1. 




whose sides are equal to one another. Commencing from any point 
A, mark on the circumference of the circle a series of spaces equal 
to the radius of the circle, of wliich there will be six, and draw the 
arcs A D D B, &c. Tiien join every alternate point as a n, b c, c a, 
and the several lines will together form an equilateral triangle. 



112 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Problem II. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a Square, 
Let A B c D be the given circle, it is required to draw a square 
Fig. 2. 




within it. Draw the diameters a b, c d, at right angles to each 
other; or, in other words, draw the diameter a b, and form a per- 
pendicular bisecting it. Then j-in the points a c, c b, e d, d a, and 
the figure a b c d is a square formed within a given circle. 



Problem III. 

Within a given Circle to inscribe a regular Pentagon ; that is, a 
Polygon of Jive Sides. 

Let A B c D be a circle in which it is required to draw a pentagon. 

Fig. 8. 



II 




Draw a diameter A d, and perpendicular to it another diameter. 
Then divide o b into two equal parts in the point e, and join c e ; and 
with E as a centre, and the radius c e, draw the arc c f, cutting a o 
in F : and, with c as a centre, and the same radius, describe the arc 
F G ; the arcs c f, g f intersect each other in the point f, and the 
arc g f intersects the circumference of the circle in the point G. 
Join the points c and g, and that line will be a side of the pentagon 
to be drawn. Mark off within the circumference the same space, 
and join the points ah, hi, ix, kc, and the figure that is formed 
is a pentagon. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



113 



Problem IV. 

Within a given Circle to describe a regular Hexagon ; that is to 
say, a Polygon of six equal Sides, 

Let A B c be the given circle, and o the centre. With the radius 

Fig. 4. 




of the circle divide it into parts, of which there will be six, and con- 
nect the points a n, d b, &c., and the figure a n b e c f will be a 
regular hexagon. 

Problem V. 

To cut off the Corners of a given Square, so as to form a regular 
Octagon, 

Let A b c D be the given square. Draw the two diagonal lines 
Fig. 5. 



_G F 




3) 1£ M 



A c, and B D, crossing each other in o. Then, with the radius a o, 
that is, half the diagonal, and with a as a centre, describe the arc 
E F, cutting the sides of the square in e and f ; then, from b as a 
centre, describe the arc g h ; and in like manner from c and d de- 
scribe the arcs i k and l m. Draw the lines l g, f i, h m, and 
K E, and these, with the parts of the given square g f, i h, m k, 
and E L, form the octagon required. 

10* 



114 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



Problem VI. 

To divide a given Line into any JVumber of Parts, which Parts 
shall be in the same Proportion to each other as the Parts of some 
other given Line, whether those Parts are equal or unequal. 

Let A B be the given line which it is required to divide in the same 
Fig. 6. 




manner and proportion as the Une c d, whether the parts are equal 
or unequal. On the base line c d, form an equilateral triangle in the 
manner already described in a former problem. Then take the dis- 
tance A B, and with e as a centre, describe the arc f g, and join the 
points F and G, and f g shall be equal to a b. Now, if from the 
points H I K, which are the divisions of the line c, we draw lines to 
E, as H E, I E, and k e, these lines will cut f g in the points a h c, 
which will divide the line f g into parts proportionate to the divisions 
of the line c d. 



Problem VII. 

On a given Line to draw a Polygon of any J^timher of Sides, so 
that that Line shall be one Side of a Polygon ; or, in other words, 
to find the Centre of a Circle which shall circumscribe any Poly- 
gon, the Length of the Side of the Polygon being given. 

We shall here show, in a tabular form, the length of the radius of 
a circle, which shall contain the given line, as a side of the required 
polygon; and here w^e will suppose the line to be divided into one 
thousand equal parts, and the radius into a certain number of like 
parts. The radius of the circle for different figures will be as fol- 
lows : — 

For an inscribed Triangle 577 

Square 701 

Pentagon 850 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 1152 

Octagon 13064 

Enneagon 1462 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 115 



Decagon 1618 

Endecagon 1775 

Dodecagon 1932 

By this table, the workman may, with a simple proportion, find the 
radius of a circle which shall contain a polygon, one side being given : 
thus, if it be required to drav/ a pentagon, the side given being tifteen 
inches, we may say as 1000 is to 15, so is 850, the tabular number for 
a pentagon, to 12 inches and seventy-five hundredth parts of an inch, 
or seven-tenths and a half of a tenth of an inch. 

We may here give another table for the construction of polygons, 
one in which the radius of the circumscribing circle is given. If it 
be required to find the side of the inscribed polygon, the radius being 
one thousand parts, the sides of the different polygons will be accord- 
ing to the following scale : — 

The THangle 1732 

Square 1414 

Pentagon 1175 

Hexagon 1000 

Heptagon 867.J 

Octagon 765 

Enneagon 684 

Decagon 618 

Endecagon 563^ 

Dodecagon 517^ 

Here, as in the case already mentioned, the law of proportion ap- 
plies, and the statement may be thus made : as one thousand is to the 
number of inches contained in the radius of the given circle, so is the 
tabular number for the required polygon to the length of one of its 
sides in inches. Thus, let it be supposed that we have a circle whose 
radius in inches is 30, and that we wish to inscribe an octagon within 
it ; then say as 1000 is to 30 inches, so is 765 to 22 inches and 95-100 
parts of an inch, the length of the side of the required octagon. 

Method of Drawing Curved Lines. 

We will now introduce a few remarks upon the method of drawing 
curved lines, and also give some rules for finding the forms of mould- 
ings when they arc to mitre together, that is to say, of raking 
mouldings, and of bevel work in general. It will also be necessary 
to make a few remarks upon the form of ribs for domes and groins, a 
knowledge of which is so necessary to the builder, that without it the 
workman cannot correctly execute his task. It is hardly necessary 
to state, that all these mechanical operations arc founded upon geo- 
metrical principles; and, unless he is acquainted with these, the 
woikman cannot hope to succeed in his attempt to excel in his art, — 
one which is necessary for the comfort and convenience of all com- 
munities. 



116 



PRACTICAL GOEMETRY. 



Problem VIII. 

To draw on Ellipse with the Rule and Compasses^ the transverse and 
conjugate Diameters being given ; that is, the Length and Width. 

Let A B be the transverse or longest diameter ; c d the conjugate 

Fig. 7. 




or shortest diameter; and o the point of their intersection, that is, 
the centre of the ellipse. Take the distance o c or o d ; and, taking 
A as one point, mark that distance a e upon the line a o. Divide 

E into three equal parts, and take from a f, a distance e f, equal 
to one of those parts. Make o g equal to o f. With the radius f g, 
and F and g as centres, strike arcs which shall intersect each other 
in the points i and h. Then draw the lines h f k, h G m, and i f l., 

1 g N. With F as a centre, and the radius a f, describe the arc 
L A K ; and, from g as a centre, with the same radius, describe the 
arc M B i^. With the radius h c, and h as a centre, describe the arc 
K c M ; and, from the point i, with the radius i d, describe the arc 
L D M. The figure a c b d is an ellipse, formed of four arcs of cir- 
cles. 

Problem IX. 

To draw an Ellipse by means of two Concentric Circles, 
Fig. 8. 







^r"^ 


•^ "^ \ 


XT 





3) 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 117 

Let A B be the transverse, and e f the conjugate diameter, and o 
the centre of an ellipse to be drawn. From o with the radius o a, 
describe the circle a c b d, and from the same centre describe another 
circle g e h f. Divide the outer circle into any number of equal 
parts ; the greater the number, the more exact will be the ellipse : 
and they should not be less than twelve. From each of these divi- 
sions draw lines to the centre o, as a o, & o, c o. Then, from a, &, c, 
&c., draw lines perpendicular to A b, and from the corresponding 
points in the inner circle, that is, from the points marked 1, 2, 3, &c., 
draw lines parallel to ab. Draw a curve through the points where 
these lines intersect each other, and it will be an ellipse. 

In the diagram to which this demonstration refers, only one quar- 
ter of the ellipse is lettered, but the process described in relation to 
that must be carried round the circles, as is shown in the dotted and 
other lines. 

Problem X. 

To describe an Ellipse by Means of a Carpenter^s Square, or a 
piece of notched Lath. 

Having drawn two lines to represent the diameters of the ellipse 
required, fasten the square so that the internal angle or meeting of 
the blade and stock shall be at the centre of the ellipse. Then take 
a piece of wood or a lath, and cut it to the length of half the longest 
diameter, and from one end cut out a piece equal to half the shortest 
diameter, and there will then be a piece remaining at one end equal 
to the difference of the half of the two diameters. Place this project- 
ing piece of the lath in such a manner that it may rest against the 
square, on the edge which corresponds to the two diameters ; then, 
turning it round horizontally, the two ends of the projection will 
slide along the two internal edges of the square, and if a pencil be 
fixed at the other end of the lath, it will describe one quarter of an 
ellipse. The square must then be moved for the successive quarters 
of the ellipse, and the whole figure will thus be easily formed. 

This method of forming an eUipse is a good substitute for the usual 
plan, and the figure thus produced is more accurate than that made 
by passing a pencil round a string moving upon two pins or nails 
fixed in the foci, for the string is apt to stretch, and the pencil cannot 
be guided with the accuracy required. 

There arc many other methods of drawing ellipses, or more prop- 
erly ovals, but we can only notice two of those in common use. 

1. By ordinates, or lines drawn perpendicular to the axis. Having 
formed the two diameters, divide the axis, or larger diameter, into 
any number of equal parts, and erect lines perpendicular to the 
several points. Next draw a semicircle, and divide its diarheter into 
the like number of e(}ual paits; that is, if the larger diameter or axis 
of the intended ellipse be divided into twenty equal parts, then the - 



118 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



semicircle must be divided into the like number. As the diameter of 
the semicircle is equal to the shorter diameter of the ellipse, or con- 
jugate axis^ perpendiculars maybe raised from these divisions of the 
diameter, or the semicircle, till they meet the circumference ; and 
the different perpendiculars, which are called ordinates, may be 
erected like perpendiculars, on the axis of ellipse. Joining the sev- 
eral points together, the ellipse is described; and the more accurately 
the perpendiculars are formed the more exact will be the ellipse. 

2. By intersecting arches. Take any point in the axis, and with a 
radius equal to the distance of that point from one extremity of the 
axis, and with one of the foci as a centre, describe an arc ; then with 
the distance of the assumed point in the axis from the other end of it, 
gind with the other focus as a centre, describe another arc intersect- 
ing the former, and the point of intersection will be a point in the 
ellipse. By assuming any number of points in the axis, any number 
of points on the curve may be found, and these united will give the 
ellipse. This process is founded on the property of the ellipse ; that 
if any two lines are drawn from the foci to any point in the curve, the 
length of these lines added together will be a constant quantity, that 
is, always the same in the same ellipse. 



Problem XI. 
To find the Centre and the two Axes of an Ellipse. 
Let A B c D be an ellipse, it is required to find its centre. Draw 
Fig. 9. 




any two lines, as e f and g h, parallel and equal to each other. Bi- 
sect these lines as in the points i and k, and bisect i k as in l. 
From L, as a centre, draw a circle cutting the ellipse in four points, 
1, 2, 3, 4. Now L is the centre of the ellipse. But join the points 
1, 3, and 2, 4; and bisect these lines as in m and jv. Draw the line 
M jg-, and produce it to a and b, and it will be the transverse axis. 
Draw c d through l, and perpendicular to ab, and it will be the 
conjugate or shorter axis. 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY, 



119 



Problem XII. 

To draw a flat Arch by the intersection of Lines, having the Open^ 
ing and Spring or Rise given. 

Lei A D B be the opening, and c d its spring or rise. In the mid- 
FiG. 10. 




die of A B, at D, erect a perpendicular d e, equal to twice c d, its 
rise ; and from e draw e a and e b, and divide a e and b e into any 
number or equal parts, as a, 6, c, and 1, 2, 3. Join b a, 3 c, 2 Z», and 
1 A, and it will form the arch required. 

The more parts a e and b e are divided into, the greater will be 
the accuracy of the curve. 

Many curves may be made in the same manner, according io the 
position of the lines a e and e b ; and if instead of two lines drawn 
from A and b, meeting in e, a perpendicular be erected at the same 
points, and two lines be then drawn from the ends of these perpendic- 
ulars meeting in an angle, and these lines be divided into any num- 
ber of equal parts, the points of the adjacent lines may be joined, and 
a curve will be formed resembling a gothic arch. The demonstration 
already given is therefore very useful to the workman, as he may 
vary the form of the curve by altering the position of the lines, either 
with respect to the angles which they make with each other, or their 
proportional lengths. 

Problem XIII. 

To find the Form or Curvature of a raldng Moulding that shall 
unite correctly with a level one. 

Let A B c D be part of the level moulding, which we will here 

Fig. 11. 




suppose to be an ovolo, or quarter round ; a and c, the points where 
the raking moulding takes its rise on the angle ; f c g, the angle the 



120 



PRACTICAL GEOMETRY. 



raking moulding makes with the horizontal one. Draw c f at the 
given angle, and from a draw A e parallel to it ; continue b A to h, 
and from c make c h perpendicular to a h. Divide c h into any 
number of equal parts, as 1, 2, 3, and draw lines parallel to h a, as 1 
a, 2 &, 3c; and then in any part of the raking moulding, as i, draw 
I K perpendicular to e a, and divide ik into the same number of 
equal parts h c is divided into ; and draw 1 a,2b,Sc, parallel to e a. 
Then transfer the distances la, 2&, 3 c, and a curve drawn through 
these points will be the form of the curve required for the raking 
moulding 

We have here shown the method to be employed for an ovolo ; but 
it is just the same for any other formed moulding, as a cavetto, semi- 
recta, &c. It may be worthy remark, that, after the moulding is 
worked, and the mitre is cut in the mitre-box for the level moulding, 
the raking moulding must be cut, either by the means of a wedge 
formed to the required angle of the rake, or a box made to correspond 
to that angle : and if this be accurately done, the mitre will be true, 
and the moulding in all its members correspond to the level moulding. 
The plane in which the raking moulding is situated is square to that 
of the level one. This is ahvays the case in a pediment, the mould- 
ings of which correspond with the return. 

Problem XIV. 

To find the Form or Curvature of the Return in an open or broken 
Pediment. 

Let A B c be the angle which the pediment makes with the cor- 

FiG. 12. 




nice, and let the form and size of the moulding be as in the last pro- 
blem, and as shown at d A b h. From d drop a perpendicular on 
c B, and draw d e perpendicular to d c, or parallel to c b ; and let 
D E be equal to e i (Fig. 11). Then from e draw e f, parallel to 
D A, and divide e f into the same number of parts as i k (Fig 11), 
at la, 2b, 3 c, and transfer the distances 1 a, 2 6, 3 c, as in Fig. 11. 
Then a curve line drawn through the points a, &, c, will be the form 
of the return for the moulding of the open pediment. 

The mitre for the return is cut in the usual manner, but that of 
the pediment is cut to the proper angle of its inclination, as in the 
last problem. In fixing the mitre, the portion e d g of the return 
must be cutaway, to make it come flush with the top of the pediment 
moulding. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION 



AND 



INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC. 



11 



122 EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 

EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



OF THE CIRCLE, CYLINDER, SPHERE, &C. 

1. The circle contains a greater area than any other plane figure bouaded 
by an equal perimeter or outline. 

2. The areas of circles are to each other as the squares of their diameterSi 

3. The diameter of a circle being 1, its circumference equals 3.1416. 

4. The diameter of a circle is equal to .31831 of its circumference. 

5. The square of the diameter of a circle being 1, its area equals .7854:. 

6. The square root of the area of a circle, multiplied by 1.12837; equals 
its diameter. 

7. The diameter of a circle multiplied by .8862, or the circumference 
multiplied by .2821, equals the side of a square of equal area. 

8. The sum of the squares of half the chord and versed sine divided by 
the versed sine, the quotient equals the diameter of corresponding circle, 

9. The chord of the whole arc of a circle taken from eight times the chord 
of half the arc, one-third of the remainder equals the length of the arc 3 or, 

10. The number of degrees contained in the arc of a circle, multiplied by 
the diameter of the circle and by .008727, the product equals the length of 
the arc in equal terms of unity. 

11. The length of the arc of a sector of a circle multiplied by its radius, 
equals twice the area of the sector. 

12. The area of the segment of a circle equals the area of the sector, 
minus the area of a triangle whose vertex is the centre, and whose base 
equals the chord of the segment, or, 

13. The area of a segment may be obtained by dividing the height of the 
segment by the diameter of the circle, and multiplying the corresponding 
tabular area by the square of the diameter. 

14. The sum of the diameters of two concentric circles multiplied by 
their difference and by .7854, equals the area of the ring or space contained 
between them. 

15. The sum of the thickness and internal diameter of a cylindric ring, 
multiplied by the square of its thickness and by 2.4674, equals its solidity. 

16. The circumference of a cylinder, multiplied by its length or height, 
equals its convex surface. 

17. The area of the end of a cylinder, multiplied by its length, equals its 
solid contents. 

18. The area of the internal diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its 
depth, equals its cubical capacity. 

19. The square of the diameter of a cylinder multiplied by its length and 
divided by any other required length, the square root of the quotient equals 
the diameter of the other cylinder of equal contents or capacity. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 123 

20. The square of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by 3.1416; equals 
its convex surface. 

21. The cube of the diameter of a sphere, multiplied by .5236, equals it3 
solid contents. 

22. The height of any spherical segment or zone multiplied by the diam- 
eter of the sphere of which it is a part, and by 3.1416, equals the area or 
convex surface of the segment; or, 

23. The height of the segment, multiplied by the circumference of the 
sphere of w^hich it is a part, equals the area. 

24. The solidity of any spherical segment is equal to three times the 
square of the radius of its base, plus the square of its height, and multiplied 
by its height and by .5236. 

25. The solidity of a spherical zone equals the sum of the squares of the 
radii of its two ends, and one-third the square of its height, multiplied by 
the height, and by 1.5708. 

26. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 foot in diameter and 1 foot in length, 
equals 5.875 of a United States gallon. 

27. The capacity of a cylinder I inch in diameter and 1 foot in length, 
equals .0408 of a United States gallon. 

28. The capacity of a cylinder, 1 inch in diameter and 1 inch in length, 
equals .0034 of a United States gallon. 

29. The capacity of a sphere 1 foot in diameter equals 3.9156 United 
States gallonSi 

30. The capacity of a sphere 1 inch in diameter equals .002165 of a 
United States gallon : — hence, 

31. The capacity of any other cylinder in United States gallons is ob- 
tained by multiplying the square of its diameter by its length, or the capaci- 
ty of any other sphere by the cube of its diameter, and by the number of 
United States gallons contained as above in the unity of its measurement, 

OF THE SQUARE, BECTANGLE, CUBE, &C. 

1. The side of a square equals the square root of its area. 

2. The area of a square equals the square of one of its sides. 

3. The diagonal of a square equals the square root of twice the square of 
its side. 

4. The side of a square is equal to the square root of half the square of 
its diagonal. 

5. The side of a square equal to the diagonal of a given square contains 
double the area of the given square. 

6. The area of a rectangle equals its length multiplied by its breadth. 

7. The length of a rectangle equals the area divided by the breadth 3 or, 
the breadth equals the area divided by the length. 

8. The side or end of a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the 
diagonal and opposite side to that required, multiplied by their diflbrcncc. 



124 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



9* The diagonal in a rectangle equals the square root of the sum of the 
squares of the base and perpendicular. 

10. The solidity of a cube equals the area of one of its sides multiplied 
by the length or breadth of one of its sides. 

11. The length or breadth of a side of a cube equals the cube root of its 
solidity. 

12. The capacity of a 12-inch cube equals 7.4784 United States gallons. 



SURFACES AND SOLIDITIES OF THE REGULAR BODIES, EACH OF WHOSE 
BOUNDARY LINES IS 1. 



No. of sides. 


Names. 


Surfaces. 


Solids. 


4 

6 

8 

12 

20 


Tetrahedron 

Hexahedron 

Octahedron 

Dodecahedron 

Icosahedron 


1.7321 
6. 

3.4641 

20.6458 

8.6603 


0.1179 
1. 

0.471 

7.6631 

2.1817 



The tabular surface multiplied by the square of one of the boundary lines 
equals the surface required ; or, 

The tabular solidity multiplied by the cube of one of the boundary lines 
equals the solidity required. 

OF TRIANGLES, POLYGONS, &C. 

1. The complement of an angle is its defect from a right angle. 

2. The supplement of an angle is its defect from two right angles. 

3. The sine, tangent, and secant of an angle, are the cosine, cotangent, 
and cosecant of the complement of that angle. 

4. The hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle being made radii, its sides 
become the sines of the opposite angles, or the cosines of the adjacent angles. 

5. The three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles : 
hence the oblique angles of a right-angled triangle are each others comple- 
ments. 

6. The sum of the squares of the two given sides of a right-angled trian- 
gle is equal to the square of the h3'potenuse. 

7. The difference between the squares of the hypotenuse and given side 
of a right-angled triangle is equal to the square of the required side. 

8. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the base multiplied 
by the perpendicular height ; or, 

9. The area of a triangle equals half the product of the two sides and the 
natural sine of the contained angle. 

10. The side of any regular polygon multiplied by its apothem or perpen- 
dicular, and by the number of its sides, equals twice the area. 



EPITOME OF MENSURATION. 



125 



TABLE OF THE AREAS OF REGULAR POLYGONS EACH OF WHOSE 
SIDES IS UNITY. 



Name of 


No. of 


Apothem or 


Area when 


Interior 


Central 


Polygon. 


Sides. 


Perpend'lar. 


Side is Unity 


Angle. 


Angle. 


Triangle 


3 


0.2887 


0.4330 


60^ 0' 


120° 0' 


Square 


4 


0.5 


1. 


90 


90 


Pentagon 


5 


0.6882 


1.7205 


108 


72 


Hexagon 


6 


0.8660 


2.5981 


120 


60 


Heptagon 


7 


1.0386 


3.6339 


128 34f 


51 25f 


Octagon 


8 


1.2071 


4.8284 


135 


45 


Nonagon 


9 


1.3737 


6.1818 


140 


40 


Decagon 


10 


1.5388 


7.6942 


144 


36 


Undecagon 


11 


1.7028 


9.3656 


147 16^\ 


32 4:3-^ 


Dodecagon 


12 


1.8660 


11.1962 


150 


30 



The tabular area of the corresponding polygon multiplied by the square 
of the side of the given polygon equals the area of the given polygon. 

OF ELLIPSES, CONES, FRUSTUMS, &C. 

1. The square root of half the sum of the squares of the two diameters of 
an ellipse multiplied by 3.1416 equals its circumference. 

2. The product of the two axes of an ellipse multiplied by .7854 equals 
its area. 

3. The curve surface of a cone is equal to half the product of the circum- 
ference of its base multiplied by its slant side, to which, if the area of the 
base be added, the sum is the whole surface. 

4. The solidity of a cone equals one third of the product of its base mul- 
tiplied by its altitude or height. 

5. The squares of the diameters of the two ends of the frustum of a cone 
added to the product of the two diameters, and that sum multiplied by its 
height and by .2618, equals its solidity. 



INSTRUMENTAL ARITHMETIC, 

OR UTILITY OP THE SLIDE RULE. 

The slide rule is an instrument by which the greater portion of operations 
in arithmetic and mensuration may be advantageously performed, provided 
the lines of division and gauge- points be made properly correct, and their 
several values familiarly understood. 

The lines of division are distinguished by the letters A B c D ; A B and c 
being each divided alike, and containing what is termed a double radius, 

11* 



126 UTILITY OP THE SLIDE RULE. 

or double series of logarithmic numbers, each series being supposed to be 
divided into 1000 equal parts, and distributed along the radius in the fol- 
lowing manner : 

From 1 to 2 contains 301 of those parts, being the log. of 2. 

'' 3 " 477 " 3. 

" 4 '' 602 « 4. 

" 5 " 699 " 5. 

'* 6 " 778 " 6. 

" 7 " 845 " 7. 

'^ 8 " 903 '' 8. 

" 9 *^ 954 '' 9. 
1000 being the whole number. 

The line D on the improved rules consists of only a single radius ; and 
although of larger radius, the logarithmic series is the same, and disposed 
of along the line in a similar proportion, forming exactl}' a line of square 
roots to the numbers on the lines b c. 

NTTMERATION. 

Numeration teaches us to estimate or properly value the numbers and 
divisions on the rule in an arithmetical form. 

Their values are all entirely governed by the value set upon the first 
figure, and being decimally reckoned, advance tenfold from the commence- 
ment to the termination of each radius : thus, suppose 1 at the joint be one, 
the 1 in the middle of the rule is ten, and 1 at the end, one hundred : again, 
suppose 1 at the joint ten, 1 in the middle is 100, and 1 or 10 at the end is 
lOOOj &c. , the intermediate divisions on which complete the whole system 
of its notation. 

TO MULTIPLY NUMBERS BY THE BULE. 
Set 1 on B opposite to the multiplier on A 3 and against the number to be 
multiplied on b is the product on a. 
Multiply 6 by 4. 

Set 1 on B to 4 on A ; and against 6 on B is 24 on A. 
The slide thus set, against 7 on b is 28 on a. 
8 " 32 *' 
^ " 36 ^' 
10 " 40 '' 
12 " 48 " 
15 '' 60 '' 
25 " 100 " &c. 

TO DIVIDE NUMBERS UPON THE BULE. 
Set the divisor on b to 1 on a 5 and against the number to be divided on 
B is the quotient on A. 
Divide 63 by 3. 

Set 3 on B to 1 on A ; and against 63 on b is 21 on A. 



UTILITY OP THE SLIDE RtJLE. 127 



PROPORTION, OR RULE OF THREE DIRECT. 

Rule. — Set the first term on B to the second on a 5 and against the third 
upon B is the fourth upon a. 

1. If 4 yards of cloth cost 38 cenlS; what will 30 yards cost at the same 
rate? 

Set 4 on B to 38 on A 5 and against 30 on B is 285 cents on A. 

2. Suppose I pay 8 1 dollars 50 cents for 3 cwt, of copper^ at what rate is 
that per ton ? 1 ton = 20 cwL 

Set 3 upon b to 31.5 upon a ; and against 20 upon B is 210 upon A. 

RULE OF THREE INVERSE. 

Rule. — Invert the slide, and the operation is the same as direct propor- 
tion. 

1. I know that six men are capable of performing a certain given por- 
tion of work in eight days^ but 1 want the same performed in three 5 how 
many men must there be employed ? 

Set 6 upon c to 8 upon a ; and against 3 upon c is 16 upon a. 

2. The lever of a safety-valve is 20 inches in length, and 5 inches between 
the fixed end and centre of the valve 3 what weight must there be placed on 
the end of the lever to equipoise a force or pressure of 40 lbs. tending to 
raise the valve ? 

Set 5 upon c to 40 upon A 3 and against 20 upon c is 10 upon A. 

3. If 8| yards of cloth, 1j| yard in width, be a sufficient quantity, how 
much will be required of that which is only 7-8ths in width, to effect the 
same purpose ? 

Set 1.5 upon c to 8.75 upon a 3 and against .875 upon c is 15 yards upon A. 

SQUARE AND CUBE ROOTS OP NUMBERS. 

On the engineer's rule, when the lines c and D are equal at both ends, c 
is a table of squares, and d a table of roots, as 

Squares 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 on c. 
Roots 12 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 on d. 

To find the geometrical mean proportion between two numbers* 
Set one of the numbers upon c to the same number upon d 5 and against 
the other number upon c is the mean number or side of an equal square 
upon D. 

Required the mean proportion between 20 and 45. 

Set 20 upon c to 20 upon D 5 and against 45 upon c is 30 upon D. 
To cube any number, set the number upon c to 1 or 10 upon D 5 and 
against the same number upon d is the cube number upon c. 



128 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

Required the cube of 4. 
Set 4 upon c to 1 or 10 upon D 5 and against 4 upon D is 64 upon c. 

To extract the cube root of any number^ invert the slide, and set the 
number upon b to 1 or 10 upon D 5 and where two numbers of equal value 
coincide on the lines B D, is the root of the given number. 

Required the cube root of 64. 
Set 64 upon b to 1 or 10 upon d ; and against 4 upon B is 4 upon D, or root 
of the given number. 

On the common rule^ when 1 in the middle of the line c is set opposite to 
10 on D, then c is a table of squares, and d a table of roots. 

To cube any number by this rule, set the number upon c to 10 upon D 5 
and against the same number upon d is the cube upon c, 

MENSURATION OF SURFACE. 

1. Squares, Rectangles, ^c. 

Rule. — When the length is given in feet and the breadth in inches, set 
the breadth on B to 12 on A 5 and against the length on a is the content in 
square feet on b. 

If the dimensions are all inches, set the breadth on b to 144 upon A 5 and 
against the length upon A is the number of square feet on b. 

Required the content of a board 15 inches broad and 14 feet long. 
Set 15 upon b to 12 upon a 5 and against 14 upon a is 17.5 square feet on b, 

2. Circles, Polygons, SfC, 
Rule. — Set .7854 upon c to 1 or 10 upon d 5 then will the lines c and D 
be a table of areas and diameters. 

Areas 3,14 7.06 12.56 19.63 28.27 38.48 50.26 63.61 upon ci 
Diam. 23456789 upon d. 
In the common rule, set .7854 on c to 10 on D 5 then c is a line or table 
of areas, and d of diameters, as before. 

Set 7 upon B to 22 upon a 5 then b and a form or become a table of di- 
ameters and circumferences of circles. 

Cir. 3.14 6.28 9.42 12.56 15.7 18.85 22 25.13 28.27 upon a. 
Dia. 123 4 5 6 78 9 upon b. 
Polygons from 3 to 12 sides, — Set the gauge-point upon c to 1 or 10 
upon D ; and against the length of one side upon D is the area upon c. 
Sides 3 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 

Gauge-points .433 1.7 2.6 3.63 4.82 6.18 7.69 9.37 11.17 
Required the area of an equilateral triangle, each side 12 inches in length. 
Set .433 upon c to 1 upon D 5 and against 12 upon d are 62.5 square 
inches upon c. 



XTTlLlTf Of THE SLIDE RlTLie. 



129 



TABLE OF GAUGE-POINTS FOR THE ENGINEER'S 


RULE. 




Names. 


F, F,y. 


F, I, I. 


1,1,1. 


F, I. 


1,1. 


F. 


I. 


Cubic inches 


578 


83 


1728 


106 


1273 


105 


121 


Cubic feet 


1 


144 


1 


1833 


22 


121 


33 


Imp. Gallons 


163 


231 


277 


294 


853 


306 


529 


Water in lbs. 


16 


23 


276 


293 


352 


305 


528 


Gold 


814 


1175 


141 


149 


178 


155 


269 


Silver *' 


15 


216 


261 


276 


334 


286 


5 


Mercury ** 


118 


169 


203 


216 


258 


225 


389 


Brass " 


193 


177 


333 


354 


424 


369 


637 


Copper '' 


18 


26 


319 


331 


397 


345 


596 


Lead " 


141 


203 


243 


258 


31 


27 


465 


Wrot iron " 


207 


297 


357 


338 


453 


394 


682 


Cast iron *' 


222 


32 


384 


407 


489 


424 


733 


Tin 


219 


315 


378 


401 


481 


419 


728 


Steel 


202 


292 


352 


372 


448 


385 


671 


Coal '' 


127 


183 


22 


33 


28 


242 


42 


Marble *' 


591 


85 


102 


116 


13 


113 


195 


Freestone " 


632 


915 


11 


1162 


14 


141 


21 





FOR 


THE COMMON SLIDE RULE. 






Names. 


F, F, F. 


F, I, I. 


I, I, I. 


F,I. 


1,1. 


F. 


I. 


Cubic inches 


36 


518 


624 


660 


799 


625 


113 


Cubic feet 


625 


9 


108 


114 


138 


119 


206 


Water in lbs. 


10 


144 


174 


184 


22 


191 


329 


Gold 


507 


735 


88 


96 


118 


939 


180 


Silver '« 


938 


136 


157 


173 


208 


173 


354 


Mercury '< 


738 


122 


127 


132 


162 


141 


242 


Brass " 


12 


174 


207 


221 


265 


23 


397 


Copper " 


112 


163 


196 


207 


247 


214 


371 


Lead '< 


880 


126 


152 


162 


194 


169 


289 


Wrot iron " 


129 


186 


222 


235 


283 


247 


423 


Cast iron ^« 


139 


2 


241 


254 


304 


265 


458 


Tin 


137 


135 


235 


' 25 


300 


261 


454 


Steel 


136 


183 


22 


233 


278 


239 


418 


Coal *' 


795 


114 


1.38 


146 


176 


151 


262 


Marble «< 


370 


53 


637 


725 


81 


72 


121 


Freestone " 


394 


57 


69 


728 


873 


755 


132 



MENSURATION OF SOLIDITY AND CAPACITY. 
General Rule. — Set the length upon b to the gauge point upon A ; and 
against the side of the square, or diameter on D, are the cubic contents, or 
weight in lbs. on c. 

1. Required the cubic contents of a tree 30 feet in length, and 10 inches 
quarter girt. 

Set 30 upon b to 144 (the gauge-point) upon A ; and against 10 upon D is 
20.75 feet upon c. 



130 UTILITY OF THE SLIDE RULE. 

2. In a cylinder 9 inches in length, and 7 inches diameter, how many cubic 
inches ? 

Set 9 upon b to 1273 (the gauge-point) upon a > and against 7 on D is 346 
inches on c. 

3. What is the weight of a bar of cast iron 3 in. square, and 6 fl. long ? 
Set 6 upon B to 32 (the gauge-point) upon a 3 and against 3 upon D is 168 

pounds upon c* 
By the common rule, 

4. Required the weight of a cyhnder of wrought iron 10 inches long, and 
5J diameter. 

Set 10 upon b to 283 (the gauge-point) upon a ; and against 5^ upon d is 
^.^ pounds on c. 

5. What is the weight of a dry rope 25 yards long, and 4 inches circum- 
ference ? 

Set 25 upon b to 47 (the gauge-point) upon a 5 and against 4 on D is 53 16 
pounds on c. 

6. What is the weight of a short-linked chain 30 yards in length, and 
6-16ths of an inch in diameter? 

Set 30 upon B to 52 (the gauge-point) upon A 5 and against 6 on d is 129.5 
pounds on c. 

POWER OF STEAM ENGINES. 

Condensing Engines. — Rule. Set 3.5 on c to 10 on d ; then D is a line 
of diameters for cylinders, and c the corresponding number of horses' 
power 5 thus, 

H. Pr. 3^ 4 5 6 8 10 12 16 20 25 30 40 50 on c. 

C. D. 10 in. 10| 12 13i 154 17 18| 21^ 24 26| 29J 33| 37i on d. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting 5 on c to 12 on d. 

Non-condensing Engines. — Rule. Set the pressure of steam in pounds 
per square inch on B to 4 upon a 3 and against the cylinder's diameter on D 
is the number of horses' power upon c. 

Required the power of an engine, when the cylinder is 20 inches diameter 
and steam 30 pounds per square inch. 

Set 30 on B to 4 on A j and against 20 on d is 30 horses' power on c. 

The same is effected on the common rule by setting the force of the steam 
on B to 250 on a. 

OF ENGINE BOILERS. 

How many superficial feet are contained in a boiler 23 feet in length and 
5J feet in width ? 

Set 1 on B to 23 on A 3 and against 5.5 upon B is 126.5 square feet upon a. 
If 5 square feet of boiler surface be sufficient for each horse-power, how 
many horses' power of engine is the boiler equal to ? 

Set 5 upon b to 126.5 upon a 3 and against 1 upon B is 25.5 upon a. 



RULES AND TABLES 



FOR 



ARTIFICERS AND ENGINEERS. 



132 MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS* WORK. 



ARTIFICERS* RULES AND TABLES 

For Computing the Work of Bricklayers, Well. Dig- 
gers, Masons, Carpenters and Joiners, Slaters, Plas- 
terers, Painters, Glaziers, Pavers, and Plumbers. 

MEASUREMENT OF BRICKLAYERS' WORK. 

Brickwork is esiimaled at the rate of a number of bricks in thickness, estimat- 
ing a brick at 4 inches thick. The dimensions of a building are usually taken 
by measuring half round on the outside, and half round on the inside ; the sum 
of these two gives the compass of the wall, — to be multiplied by the height, for 
the content of the materials. Chimneys are by some measured as if they were 
solid, deducting only the vacuity from the hearth lo the mantel, on account of the 
trouble of them. And by others they are girt or measured round for their breadth, 
and the height of the stor>' is their height, taking the depth of the jambs for their 
thickness. And in this case, no deduction is made for the vacuity from the floor 
to the mantel-tree, because of the gathering of the breast and wings, to make room 
for the hearth in the next story. To measure the chimney shafts, which appear 
above the building, gird them about with a line for the breadth, to multiply by 
their height. And account their thickness half a brick more than it really is, in 
consideration of the plastering and scaffoldino;. All windows, doors, &c., are to 
be deducted out of the contents of the walls in which they are placed. But this 
deduction is made only with regard to materials ; for.the whole measure is taken 
for workmanship, and that all outside measure too, namely, measuring quite 
round the outside of the building, being in consideration of the trouble of the 
returns or angles. There are also some other allowances, such as double meas- 
ure for feathered gable ends, &c. 

Example. — The end wall of a house is 2S feet long, and 37 feet high to the 
eaves: 15 feet high is four bricks or 16 inches thick, other 12 feet is three bricks 
or 12 inches thick, and the remaining lU feet is two bricks or 8 inches thick; 
above which is a triangular gable 12 feet high and one brick or 4 inches in 
thickness. What number of bricks are there in the said wall? Ans. 25^^20. 

thickness. 

28 X 15 = 420 X 4 = 16S0 contents of 1st story. 
23X12 = 336X3 = 1003 " ''2d " 
23x10=250x2= 560 « " 3d ♦« 
12 -r- 2= 6X23 = 168X1= 163 " ''gable. 



3416 square feet area of whole wall. 
7^ bricks to square foot. 

2:3,912 By the table 
1,703 3000 suprfi. ft. = 22,500 bricks, 

400 " *' = 3,000 " 

Answer,— 25,620 bricks. 10 " " = 75 « 
Q u u — 45 u 



3416 " '' = 25,620 bricks 

^ Table by which to ascertain the number of Bricks necessary to construct any 
Piece of Buildingyfrom afour-iiuh Wall to twenty four inches in Hiickruss. 

The utility of the Table (on next page) can be seen by the following Ex- 
ample. Required the number of bricks to build a wall of 12 inches thickness, 
and containing an area of 6,437 square feet. 
Square feel 1000 22,500 bricks— See table. 

X 6 6 



6000= 135 000 Note. — 7i bricks, 

400= 9,000 equal one superficial fooU 

on «"r^ 



30 = 675 

7= 153 



6,437= 144,833 bricks. 



MEASUREMENT OF BRICKWORK, WELLS & CISTERNS. 133 



Superficial 




Numbel-'of Bricks to Thicktiess of 




feet of 














Wall. 


4-iiich 


8 inch. 


12-inch. 


I 16-inch. 


1 20-inch. 


1 24-incli. 


1 


8 


15 


23 


30 


38 


45 


2 


15 


30 


45 


60 


75 


90 


3 


23 


45 


68 


90 


113 


135 


4 


30 


60 


90 


120 


150 


180 


5 


38 


75 


113 


150 


188- 


225 


6 


45- 


90 


135 


180 


225 


270 


. 7 


53 


105 


158 


210 


263 


315 


8 


60 


120 


180 


240 


300 


360 


9 


68 


135 


203 


270 


338 


405 


10 


75 


150 


225 


300 


375 


450 


20 


150 


300 


450 


600 


750 


900 


30 


225 


450 


675 


900 


1125 


1350 


40 


300 


600 


900 


1200 


1500 


1800 


50 


375 


750 


1125 


1500 


1875 


2250 


60 


450 


900 


1350 


1800 


2250 


2700 


70 


525 


1050 


1575 


2100 


2625 


3150 


80 


600 


1200 


1800 


2400 


3000 


3600 


90 


675 


1350 


2025 


2700 


3375 


4050 


100 


750 


3500 


2250 


3000 


3750 


4500 


200 


1500 


3000 


4500 


6000 


7500 


9000 


300 


2250 


4500 


6750 


9000 


11250 


13500 


400 


30U0 


6000 


9000 


12000 


15000 


18000 


500 


3750 


7500 


11250 


15000 


18750 


22500 


600 


4500 


9000 


13500 


18000 


22500 


27000 


700 


5250 


10500 


15750 


21000 


26250 


31500 


800 


6000 


12000 


18000 


24000 


30000 


36000 


900 


6750 


13500 


20250 


27000 


33750 


40500 


1000 


7500 


15000 


22500 


30000 


37500 


45000 



MEASUREMENT OF WELLS AND CISTERNS. 

There are two methods of estimating the value of excavating. It may be 
done by allowing so much a day for every man's work, or so much per cubic 
foot, or yard, for all that is excavated. 

Well Digging. — Suppose a Well is 40 feet deep, and 5 feet in diameter,, 
required the number of cubic feet, or yards? 

5 X 5 = 25 X .7854 = 19.635 X 40 = 785.4 cubic feet. 

Suppose a well .o be 4 feet 9 inches diameter, and 16^ feet from the bottom to 
the surface of the water ; how many gallons are therein contained ? 
4.752 X 16.5 X 5.875 = 2187.152 gallons. 

Again, suppose the well's diameter the same, and its eniire depth 35 feet; re- 
quired the quantity in cubic yards of material excavated in its formation. 
4.752 X 35 X 02909 = 22.972 cubic yards. 

A cylindrical piece of lead is required 7^ inches diameter, and 1G8 lbs. in 
weight i what must be its length in inches? 

7.52 X -3223 = 18, and 168 -^ 18 = 9.3 inches. 

Digging for Foundations, Sfc. — To find the cubical quantity in a trench, or 
an excavated area, the length, width, and depth must be multiplied togciiier. 
These are usually given in feet, and therefore, to reduce the amount into cubic 
yards it must be divided by 27. 

Suppose a trench is 40 feet long, 3 feet wide, and 3 feet deep, required the 
number of cubic feet, or yards ? 

40 X 3 = 120 X 3 = 360 feet -f- 27 = 13| yards. 

24 cubic feet of sand, 17 ditto clay, 18 ditto earth, equal one ton. 

1 cubic yard of earth or gravel, before digging, will occupy about 1^ cubic 
yards when dug. 

MEASUREMENT OF MASONS' WORK. 

To masonry belong all sorts of stone-work ; and the measure made use of is 
a foot, either superficial or solid. 
Walls, columns, blocks of stone or marble, &c., are measured by the cubic 

12 



134 MEASUREMENT OF MASONS* & CARPEJMTERS' WORK. 



foot; and pavements, slabs, chimney-pieces, &c., by the superficial or square 
foot. Cubic or solid measure is used for the materials, and square measure for 
the workmanship. In the solid measure, ihe true lengih, breadih and thickness, 
are taken, and multiplied continually together. In the superficial, there must be 
taken the lengih and breadih of every part of the projection, which is seen with- 
out the general upright face of the building. 

Example. — In a chimney-piece, suppose the length of the mantel and slab 
each 4 feet 6 inches ; breadih of boih together 3 feet 2 inches ; length of each 
jamb 4 feel 4 inches ; breadih of boih together 1 foot 9 inches. Required the 
superficial content. — Ans. 21 feet 10 inches. 

t^l-t ;?• >< I fl-f V?- = ',* [;• V"- \ 21 ftet 10 inches. 

Rubble Walls (unhewn stone) are commonly measured by the perch, which is 
16| feel long, 1 foot deep, and 1^ fool thick, equivalent to 24| cubic feel. 25 cu- 
bic feet is sometimes allowed to the perch, in measuring stone before it is laid, and 
22 after it is laid in the wall. This species of work is of two khids, coursed 
and uncoursed ; in the former the stones are gauged and dressed by the hammer, 
and the masonry laid in horizontal courses, but not necessarily confined. to the 
same height. The uncoursed rubble wall is formed by laying the stones in the 
wall aslhey come to hand, without any previous gauging or working. 

27 cubic feet of mortar require for its preparation, 9 bushels of lime and 1 
cubic foot of sand. 

Lime and sand lessen about one-third in bulk when made into mortar ; like- 
wise cement and sand. 

Lime, or cement and sand, to make mortar, require as much water as is equal 
to one-third of their bulk. 

All sandstones ought to be placed on their natural beds ; from inattention to 
this circumstance, the stones ofien split off at the joints, and the position of the 
lamina much sooner admits of the deslructive action of air and waier. 

The heaviest stones are most suited for docks and harbors, breakwaters to 
bridges, &c. 

Granite is the most durable species of stone yet known for the purposes of 
building. It varies in weight according to quality ; the heaviest is the most 
durable. 

MEASUREMENT OF CARPExNTERS' AND JOINERS' WORK. 

To this branch belongs all the wood work of a house, such as flooring, parti- 
tioning, roofing, &c. Large and plain articles are usually measured by the square 
foot or yard, &.C., but enriched mouldings, and some other articles, are often esti- 
mated by running or lineal measures, and some things are rated by the piece. 

All joints, girders, and in fact all the parts of naked flooring, are measured by 
the cube, and their quantiiies are found by multiplying the length by ihe breadih, 
and the product by the depth. The same rule appplies to the measurement of 
all the limbers of a roof, and also the framed timbers used in the construction of 
partitions. 

Flooring, that is to say, the boards which cover the naked flooring, is meas- 
ured by the square. The dimensions are taken from wall to wall, and the pro- 
duct is divided by 100, which gives the number of squares ; but deductions must 
be made for staircases and chimneys. 

In measuring of joists, it is to be observed, that only one of their dimensions 
is the same with that of the floor ; for the other exceeds the lengih of ihe rooni by 
the thickness ofthe wall, and one-third of the same, because each end is let into 
the wall about two-thirds of its thickness. 

' No deductions are made for hearths, on account of the additional trouble and 
.waste of materials. 

Partitions are measured from wall to wall for one dimension, and from floor to 
floor, as far as they extend, for ihe other. 

No deduction is made for door- ways, on account ofthe trouble of framing them. 

In measuring of joiners' work, the string is made to ply close to every part of 
the work over which it passes. 

The measure for centering for cellars is found by making a string pass over 
the surface of the arch for the breadth, and taking the lengih of the cellar for 



MEASUKEMENT OF CARPENTERS* & JOINERS* WORK. 135 



the length; but in groin centering, it is usual to allow double measure, on ac- 
count of their extraordinary trouble. 

In roofing^ the length of the house in the inside, together with two-thirds of the 
thickness of one gable, is to be considered as the lengtli , and the. breadth is equal 
to doul)!e the leugih of a string which is stretched from the ridge down the rafter, 
and along the eaves-board, till it meets with the top of the wall. 

For staircases^ take the breadth of all the steps, by making a line ply close 
over them, from ilie top to the bottom, and multiply the length of this line by the 
length of a step, for the whole area.— By the length of a step is meant the length 
of the front and the returns at the two ends ; and by the breadth, is to be under- 
stood the girth of its two outer surfaces, or the tread and riser. 

For the balustrade^ i^kexhe whole length of the upper part of the handrail, 
and gin over its end till it meet the top of the newel post, for the length ; and 
twice the length of the baluster upon the landing, with the girth of the hand- 
rail for the breadth. 

For wainscoting ^i^ke the compass of the room for the length ; and the height 
from the floor to the ceiling, making the string ply close into all the mouldings 
for the breadth. Out of this must be made deductions for windows, doors, and 
chimneys, &c., but workmanship is counted for the whole, on account of the 
extraordinary trouble. 

For doors^ it is usual to allow for their thickness, by adding it to both dimen- 
sions of length and breadth, and then to multiply them together for the area. 
If the door be paneled on both sides, take double its measure for the workman- 
ship ; but if the one side only be paneled, take the area and its half for the 
"u^orkmanship. — For the surrounding architrave^ gird it about the outermost parts 
for its length ; and measure over it, as far as it can be seen when the door is 
open, for the breadth. 

Window-shutters^ bases, 4*c., are measured in the same manner. 

In the measuring of roofing for workmanship alone, holes for chimney-shafts 
and sky-lighis are generally deducted. But in measuring for work and mate- 
rials, they commonly measure in all sky-lights, lutheran- lights, and holes for 
the chimney-shafts, on account of their trouble and waste of materials. 

The doors and shutters, being worked on both sides, are reckoned work and 
half work. 

Hemlock and Pine Shingles are generally 18 inches long, and of the average 
width of 4 inches. When nailed to the roof 6 inches are generally left cut to 
the weather, and 6 shingles are therefore required to a square foot. Cedar and 
Cypress Shingles are generally 20 inches long, and 6 inches wide, and therefore 
a less number are required for a " square." On account of waste and defects, 
1000 shingles should be allowed to a square. 

Two 4- penny nails are allowed to each shingle, equal to 1200 to a square. 

The weight of a square of partitioning may be estimated at from 1500 to 
2000 lbs.; a square of single-joisted flooring, at from 1200 to 2000 lbs.; a square of 
framed flooring, at from 2700 to 4500 lbs; a square of deafening, at about 1500 lbs. 
100 superficial feet make one square of boarding, flooring, &c. 

In selecting Timber, avoid spongy heart, porous grain, and dead knots; 
choose the brightest in color, and where the strong red grain appears to rise on 
the surface. 

The Carpenter will find in the " Business Man's Assistant" Tables giving the 
solid CDnients of Timber and Logs ; the square feet in Scantling from 2.2 to 15.16 in- 
ches ; the square feet in Boards and Planks; the contents of Logs in standard 
Board measure ; the strength and weight of Iron Cylinders, Trusses, Plates, 
Cast Iron for Beams, and Hoop Iron. 

Number of American Iron Machine Cut Nails, in a pound, (by count.) 



3 


penny 


. . 408 


6 


penny . 


. 156 


12 


penny . 


. . 52 


4 


u 


. . 275 


8 


(( 


. 100 


20 


n 


. . 32 


5 


iC 


. , 227 


10 


i« 


. 06 


30 


it 


. . 25 



136 



MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS WORK. 



SASH TABLE. — S'lzc and Trices of Sashes, SliuiUrs, ^c. Cincinnati, Ohio. 







Size of Sash 


•^S 


'sll-s* 


t Price of Window 


Size of Lights. 


Pi 


for 12 light "Windows. 




Price 
Venit 

Shutt 
per p 


Frames. 




Width. 


Length. 


Box. 


Common. 


Inches. 


In. 


feet. in. 


feet. in. 


cts. 


$ cts. 


^ cts. 


$ CIS. 


8 by 10 


n 


2 4 


3 10 


4 


1 374 


2 00 


1 20 


8 by 10 


n 


2 4 


3 10 


5 


1 624 


2 00 


1 20 


9 by 12 


n 


2 7h 


4 64 


5 


1 624 


2 50 


1 30 


9 by 12 


n 


2 74 


4 64 


6 


1 75 


2 50 


1 30 


10 by 12 




2 10.1 


4 64 


5 


1 624 


2 50 


1 30 


10 by 12 


if 


2 lOi 


4 64 


6 


1 75 


2 50 


1 30 


10 by 14 


11 


2 lOi 


5 24 


7 


2 124 


2 75 


1 40 


10 by 15 


18 


2 104 


5 64 


74 


2 25 


2 75 


1 40 


10 by 16 


IS 


2 104 


5 104 


8 


2 37i 


3 20 


1 50 


11 by 15 


If 


3 2 


5 64 


8 


2 37* 


3 20 


1 50 


11 by 16 


1| 


3 2 


5 104 


84 


2 50 


3 35 


1 60 


11 by 17 


18 


3 2 


6 24 


84 


2 624 


3 50 


1 70 


12 by 16 




3 5 


5 104 


84 


2 624 


3 75 


1 80 


12 by 18 


If 


3 5 


6 64 


9 


2 874 


4 00 


1 90 


12 by 20 


If 


3 5 


7 24 


10 


3 124 


4 25 


2 124 


12 by 22 


If 


3 5 


7 104 


11 


3 374 


4 50 


2 30 


12 by 24 




3 5 


8 64 


12 


3 624 


4 75 


2 50 



Sash 1 1-2 cfr 1 3-4 inches thick, add 1 1-2 cents per light, to 1 3-S inch prices ; for Plough- 
ing and Boring sash, add 1-2 cent per light ; all 1 3-S sa^h are made with hook rails. 

Venitian Shutters, 1 1 -2 or 1 3-4 inches thick, add 50 cents per pair to 13-8 inch prices. 
Shutters are made 1 1-4 inches longer than sash. Pivot or Boiling Shutters, extra price. 

MEASUREMENT OF SLATERS^ WORK. 

In these article^s, the content of a roof is found by multiplying the length of the 
ridge by the girth over from eave§ to eaves ; making allowance in this girth for 
the double row of slates at the bottom, or for how much one row of slates is laid 
over ariother. When the r-oof is of » true pitch, that is, forming a right angle at 
top, then the breadth of the building with its half added, is the girih over both 
sides. In angles formed in a roof, running from the ridge to the eaves, when the 
angle bends inwards, it is called a valley ; but when outwards, it is called a hip. 
It is not usual to make deductions for chimney-sbafis, sky-lights or other openings. 

SLATES. IFrom the Quarries of Rutland Couniyy Vermont.] 



3 inch Cover. 


2 inch Cover. 

No. of slates 


3 inch Cover. \2 inch Cover. 




No. of Slates 




No. of Slates No. of slates 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the square 


Sizes of Slates. 


to the Square 


to the square 




or 100 Feet. 


or 100 Feet. 




or 100 Feet. 


or 100 Feet. 


24 by 16 


86 


84 


18 by 11 


1744 


1634 


24 by 14 


93 


934 


18 by 10 


192 


180 


24 by 12 


114 


109 


18 by 9 


213 


200 


22 by 14 


108 


1:024 


16 by 12 


184 


1714 


22 by 12 


126 


120 


16 by 10 


2214 


205| 


22 by 10 


152 


144 


16 by 9 


246 


2284 


20 by 14 


129 


1144 


16 by 8 


277 


257 


20 by 12 


143 


133^ 


14 by 10 


262 


240 


20 by 11 


146 


1454 


14 by 9 


293 


2664 


20 by 10 


169i 


160 


14 by 8 


327 


300 


18 by 12 


160 


150 


14 by 7 


374 


343 



" Each Slate is 3 inches bond or cover. The rule for measuring Slating is, to add one 
foot for all hips and valleys. No deduction is made for Lutheran windows, skylights or 
chimneys, except they are of tuxusual size ; then one half is deducted." 



plasterers', pavers*, and painters' work. 137 



IMPORTED SLATES. 



Names of Slates, 



Duchesses, . . . 
Marchionesses, . 
Countesses, . . . 
Viscountesses, . 
Ladies, 

do 

do 

do. 

Plantations, . . . 

do. . . . 

do. . . , 

Doubles, . . . . 

do. snnall, , 

School Slates 

Blackboards, . 



for 



Sizes. 



Inches. Inches. 

24 by 12 



22 
20 
18 
16 
16 
14 
12 
14 
13 
12 
13 
11 



12 
10 
10 
10 

8 

8 

8 

12 

10 

10 

7 

7 



5ft.by2 1-2ft 
5 feet by 3 feet. 



Number of Super- 
ficial Feet each M 
of 1200 will cover. 



1100 

1000 
750 

666 2-3 
583 1-3 
466 2-3 
400 

333 1-3 
600 

458 1-3 
416 2-3 
320 5-6 
262 1-2 



Weight of 
each M of 
1200 Slates. 



60 

55 

40 

36 

31 

25 

22 

18 1-2 

33 

25 

23 

17 1-2 

14 1-2 



cwt. 






MEASUREMENT OF PLASTERERS' WORK. 

Plasterers' work is of two kinds, namely, ceiling — which is plastering upon laths 
— and rendering, which is plastering upon walls, which are measured separately. 

The contents are estimated either by the foot or yard, or square of 100 feet. 
Enriched mouldings, &c., are rated by running or lineal measure. One foot extra 
is allowed for each mitre. 

One half of the openings, windows, doors, &c., allowed to compensale ^for 
trouble of finishing returns at top and sides. 

Cornices and mouldings, if 12 inches or more in girt, are sometimes estimated 
by the sq ft. ; if less than 12 inches they are usually measured by the lineal foot. 

1 bushel of cement will cover 1 1-7 square yards at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. * do. lA do. do. | do. do. 

do. do. do. 2| do. do. ^ do. do. 

1 bushel of cement and 1 of gand will caver 2\ sq. yds. at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. do. do. 3 do. | do. do. 

do. do. do. do. A^ do. | do. do. 

1 bushel of cement and 2 of sand will cover 3| square yds. at 1 inch in thickness, 
do. do. do. do. 4^ do. | do. do. 

do. do. do. do. 6| do. | do. do. 

1 cwt- of mastic and 1 gallon of oil will cover 1^ yards at |, or 2} at ^ inch, 
1 cubic yard of lime, 2 yards of road or drift sand, and 3 bushels of hair, 
will cover 75 yards of render and set on brick, and 70 yards on lath, or 65 yards 
plaster^ or render^ 2 coats and set on brick, and 60 yards on lath j floated work 
will require about the same as 2 coats and set. 

Laths are \} to 1^ inches by 4 feet in length, and are usually set ^ih of an inch 
apart. A bundle contains 100. 1 bundle of laths and 500 nails cover about 4^ yds. 

MEASUREMENT OF PAVERS' WORK. 

Pavers' work is done by the square yard. And the content is found by multi- 
plying the length by the breadth. Grading for paving is charged by the day. 

MEASUREMENT OF PAINTERS' WORK. 

Painters' work is computed in square yards. Every part is measured where 
Ihe color lies ; the measuring line is forced into all the moulduigs and corners. 

12* - - 



138 



PAINTERS , GLAZIERS , AND PLUMBERS WORK. 



Cornices, mouldings, narrow skirtings, reveals to doors and windows, and 
generally all work not more than nine inches wide, are valued by ilieir length. 
Sash-frames are charged so much each according to their size, and the squares 
so much a dozen. Mouldings, cut in, are charged by the foot run, and the work- 
man always receives an extra price for party-colors. Writing is charged by the 
inch, and the price given is regulated by the skill and manner in which the work 
is executed : the same is true of imitations and marbling. The price of painting 
varies exceedingly, some colors being more expensive and requiring much more 
labor than others. In measuring open railing, it is customary to take it as flat 
work, which pays for the extra labor ; and as the rails are painted on all sides, 
the two surfaces are taken. It is customary to allow all edges and sinkings. 

MEASUREMENT OF GLAZIERS' WORK. 

Glaziers' work is sometimes measured by the sq. ft., sometimes by the piece, 
oral so much per light ; except where the glass is set in metallic frames, when 
the charge is by the foot In estimating by the sq. ft., it is customary to include 
the whole sash. Circular or oval windows are measured as if they were square. 

TABLE SHOWING THE SIZE AND NUMBER OF LIGHTS 
TO THE 100 SQUARE FEET. 



Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights. 


Size. 


Lights.! Size. 


Lights 


6 by 8 


300 


12 by 14 


86 


14 by 22 


47 


20 by 20 


36 


7 by 9 


229 


12 by 15 


80 


14 by 24 


43 


20 by 22 


33 


8 by 10 


180 


12 by 16 


75 


15 by 15 


64 


20 by 24 


30 


8 by 11 


164 


12 by 17 


71 


15 by 16 


60 


20 by 25 


29 


8 by 12 


150 


12 by 18 


67 


15 by 18 


53 


20 by 26 


28 


9 by 10 


160 


12 by 19 


63 


15 by 20 


48 


20 by 28 


26 


9 by 11 


146 


12 by 20 


60 


15 by 21 


46 


21 by 27 


25 


9 by 12 


133 


12 by 21 


57 


15 by 22 


44 


22 by 24 


27 


9 by 13 


123 


12 by 22 


55 


15 by 24 


40 


22 by 26 


25 


9 by 14 


114 


12 by 23 


52 


16 by 16 


56 


22 by 28 


23 


9 by 16 


100 


12 by 24 


50 


16 by 17 


53 


24 by 28 


21 


10 by 10 


144 


13 by 14 


79 


16 by 18 


50 


24 by 30 


20 


10 by 12 


120 


13 by 15 


74 


16 by 20 


45 


24 by 32 


19 


10 by 13 


111 


13 by 16 


69 


16 by 21 


43 


25 by 30 


19 


10 by 14 


103 


13 by 17 


65 


16 by 22 


41 


26 by 36 


15 


10 by 15 


96 


13 by IS 


61 


16 by 24 


38 


28 by 34 


15 


10 by 16 


90 


13 by 19 


58 


17 by 17 


50 


30 by 40 


12 


10 by 17 


85 


13 by 20 


55 


17 by 18 


47 


31 by 36 


13 


10 by 18 


80 


13 by 21 


53 


17 by 20 


42 


31 by 40 


12 


11 by 11 


119 


13 by 22 


50 


17 by 22 


38 


31 by 42 


12 


11 by 12 


109 


13 by 24 


46 


17 by 24 


35 


32 by 42 


10 


11 by 13 


101 


14bvl4 


73 


18 by 18 


44 


32 by 44 


10 


11 by 14 


94 


14 by 15 


68 


18 by 20 


40 


33 by 45 


10 


11 by 15 


87 


14 by 16 


64 


18 by 22' 


36 


34 by 46 


9 


11 by 16 


82 


14 by 17 


60 


18 by 24 


33 


30 by 52 


9 


11 by 17 


77 


14 by 18 


57 


19 by 19 


40 


32 by 56 


8 


11 by 18 


73 


14 by 19 


54 


19 by 20 


38 


33 by 56 


8 


12 by 12 


100 


14 by 20 


51 


19 by 22 


34 


36 by 58 


7 


12 by 13 


92 


14 by 21 


49 


19 by 24 


32 


38 by 58 


7 



MEASUREMENT OF PLUMBERS' WORK. 

Plumbers' work is rated at so much a pound, or else by the hundred weight, 
of 11-2 pounds. Sheet lead, used in roofing, guitering, &c., is from 7 to 12 lbs. to 
the square foot. And a pipe of an inch bore is commonly from 6 to 13 lbs. to the 
yard in length. — [See Table," Weight of Lead Fipejper Foot'* ] 



SIZE & WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPES, HOPES & CHAINS. 139 



PATENT IMPROVED LEAD PIPE, SIZES AND WEIGHT 
PER FOOT. 



Calibre. 


Weight j 
per foot. 

lbs. ozs. 


Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 


Calibre'Weight 
j per toot.' 


Calibre 


Weight 
per foot. 


Calibre. 
Inches. 


Weight 
per foot. 


Inches. 


Inches. 


lbs. ozs. 


Inches. 


lbs. ozs. 


Inches. 


lbs. ozs. 


lbs. ozs. 


X 


6 


Vz 


1 4 


X 


1 4 


1 


4 , 


^ 


5 


it 


8 




1 8 




2 


(( 


6 ' 


IX 


4 


u 


10 


u 


2 


li 


2 4 


IX 


2 8 ; 


2 


5 


u 


12 


(( 


3 


<( 


2 8 


u 


3 


cc 


6 


a , 


1 


% 


13 


(( 


3 


<( 


3 8 


({ 


7 


(C 


1 8 


u 


1. 


(( 


4 


(( 


4 


n^ i 


U 


K 


8 


<< 


1 8 


1 


1 8 


u 


5 


3 1 


13 


(( 


10 


(C 


2 


(( 


1 12 


IK 


3 


15 


ct 


12 


(C 


2 12 


(( 


2 


u 


3 8 


4 •! 


18 


li 


14 


X 


12 


cc 


2 8 


u 


4 


4^; •; 


20 


(C 


1 




14 


cc 


3 


cc 


4 8 


5 


22 



Sheet Lead.^ — Weight of a Square Foot, 2J, 3, 3J, 4, 4j, 5, 6, 7, 
8J, 9, 10 lbs. and mpwards. 



BOSTON LEAD PIPE, 


SIZES 


AND 


WEIGHT PER 


FOOT. 


1-2 Inch. 1 


5-8 Inch. 1 3-4 Inch. 


llnch. 


11-4 Inch. 


11-2 Inch. 


13-4 Inch. 


2 Inch. 


lbs. 


02. 


lbs. 


cz. lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


Z65. 


oz. 


lbs. 


oz. 


lbs. 


cz. 


lbs. 


oz. 




10 


2 


12 


1 


1 


1 


8 


2 


4 


3 


5 


3 


10 


4 


12 




12 


3 




1 


S 


1 


12 


2 


8 


3 


12 


4 


3 


5 


8 




16 






1 


12 


2 




2 


13 


4 


4 


5 


2 


7 


12 


1 


4 






2 


4 


2 


6 


3 


3 


4 


10 










1 


8 






3 


2 


2 


14 


3 


15 


6 












1 


11 






3 


14 


3 


13 


















1 


14 










5 




















2 


4 




' 




6 


4 



















COMPARATIVE STRENGTH AND WEIGHT OF ROPES 
AND CHAINS. 



1. 


^1 




is 
^1 


g g 

2 S 


i-2 


.1 

^1 


4 

1.9 
IS 


.1 
f'-s 

^"1 


5 ^ 

1 § 

2 a 


o 


tM 


u 


Ph 


(5 2 


3 


Pm 


o 


c« 


iS 2 


3* 


2f 


tV 


H 


1 H 


10 


23 


i 


43 


10 


4i 


4| 


t 


8 


1 16f 


lOf 


28 


n 


49 


11 11 


5 


5f 


t'tt 


104 


2 10 


lU 


30i 


lin. 


56 


13 8 


5? 


7 


^ 


14 


3 5i 


m 


36 


ItV 


63 


14 18 


6f 


9f 


T^F 


18 


4 3i 


13 


39 


u 


71 


16 14 


7 


Hi 


t 


22 


5 2 


13f 


45 


lA 


79 


18 11 


8 


15 


f^ 


27 


6 4i 


144 


484 


u 


87 


20 8 


8f 


19 


f 


32 


7 7 


15i 


56 


ItV 


96 


22 13 


9i 


21 


if 


37 


8 13J- 


16 


60 


If 


106 


24 18 



Note. — It must bo understood and also borne in mind, that, in estimatins: the 
amount of tensile strain to which a body is subjected, tiie weight of the body 
itself must also be taken in'to account; for according: to its pot^iiion so may it 
approximate to Us whole weight in lending to produce extension within itself; 
as in the almost constant applicuiion of ropes and chains lo great depths, con- 
siderable heights, &c. 



140 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION. 

iFrom Templetons IVorkshop Companion.] 

Materials of construction are liable to four different kinds of strain; 
viz., stretching, crushing, transverse action, and torsion or twisting: the 
first of which depends upon the body's tenacity- alone 5 the second, on its 
resistance to compression ; the third, «n its tenacity and compression com- 
bined J and the fourth, on that property by which it opposes any acting force 
tending to change from a straight linC; to that of a spiral direction, the 
fibres of which the body is composed. 

In bodies, the power of tenacity and resistance to compression, in the di- 
rection of their length, is as the cross section of their area multiplied by the 
results of experiments on similar bodies, as exhibited in the foUowmg tables. 

Table showing the Tenacities, Resistances to Compression, and other Prop- 
erties of the common Materials of Coiistruction, 



Absolute. 



Compared with. Cast Iron. 



Names of Bodies. 



Ash, 

Beech, . 
Brass, 
Brick, 
Cast Iron, 
Copper (wrought), . 
Elm, 

Fir, or Pine, white, 
" " Red, . 

« «« Yellow, 

Granite ^Aberdeen), 
Gun-metal (copper 8, 

and tin 1). . 
Malleable Iron, 
Larch, 
Lead, 

Mahogany, Honduras, 
Marble, . 
Oak, 

Rope (1 in. in circum.) 
Steel, 
Stone, Bath, . 

" Craigleith, , 

*' Dundee, 

" Portland, 
Tin (cast) 
Zinc (sheet) . 



Tenacity 

in lbs. per 

sq. inch. 



Resistance 
to compres- 
sion in lbs. 
per sq, inch. 



14130 
12225 
17968 
275 
13434 
33000 
9720 
12346 
11800 
11S35 



35S38 

56000 

12240 

1S24 

11475 

551 

IISSO 

200 

12S000 

478 

772 

2661 

857 

4736 

9120 



8548 

10304 

562 

86397 

1033 
2028 
5375 
5445 
10910 



5568 

8000 
6060 
9504 



5490 
6630 
3729 



Its 

strength 



Its ex- I Its 
tensibility stiffness 

i i8 i^ 



0.23 
0.15 
0.435 


2.6 
2.1 

0.9 


1.000 


1.0 


0.21 
0.23 
0.3 
0.25 


2.9 
2.4 
2.4 
2.9 


0.65 
1.12 

0.136 
0.096 
024 


1.25 

0.86 

2.3 

25 

2.9 


0.25 


2.8 


0182 
0365 


0.75 
05 



0.0?9 
0.073 
0.49 

1.000 

0.073 
0.1 
0.1 
0.087 



0.535 
1.3 

0.0585 

0.038 

0.487 

0.093 



25 
0.76 



RESISTANCE TO LATERAL PRESSURE, OR TRANSVERSE ACTION. 

The stren^h of a square or rectangular beam to resist lateral pressure, 
acting- in a perpendicular direction to its length, is as the breadth and square 
of the depth; and inversely as the length 3— fhus, a beam t>vice the breadth 



ELASTICITY AND STRENGTH OF TIMBER. 



141 



of another, all other circumstances being aUke, equal twice the strength of 
the other j or twice the depth, equal four times the strength, and twice the 
length, equal only half the strength, &c., according to the rule. 

Table of Data, containing the Results of Experiments on the Elasticity 
and Strength of various Species of Timber, by Mr. Barlow. 



Species of 
Timber. 



Teak, 
Poena, 
English Oak, 
Canadian do. 
Dantzic do. 
Adriatic do. 
Ash, . 
Beech, 



Value of 


Value of 


E. 


S. 


174.7 


2462 


122.26 


2221 


105. 


1672 


155.5 


1766 


86.2 


1457 


70.5 


1383 


119. 


2026 


98. 


1556 



Species of 
Timber. 



Elm, . 
Pitch pine. 
Red pine, . 
New England Fir. 
Riga Fir, . 
Mar Forest do. 
Larch, 
Norway Spruce. 



Value of 


Value of 


E. 


S. 


50.64 


1013 


88.68 


1632 


133. 


1341 


158.5 


1102 


90. 


1100 


63. 


1200 


76. 


900 


105.47 


1474 



To find the dimensions of a beam, capable of sustaining a given weighty with a giv- 

en degree of deflection^ when supported at both ends. 

Rule.— Multiply the weight to be supported in lbs. by the cube of the length 
in feet ; divide the product by 32 times the tabular value of E, muliiplied into the 
given deflection in inches ; and the quotient is the breadth multiplied by the cube 
of the depth in inches. 

Note l.— When the beam is intended to be square, then the fourth root of the quotient 
is the breadth and depth required. 

Note 2.— If the beam is to be cylindrical, multiply the quotient by 1.7, and the fourth 
root of the product is the diameter. 

Ex. The distance between the supports of a beam of Riga fir is J6 feet, and 
the weight it must be capable of sustaining in the middle of its length is 8000 lbs, 
wiih a deflection of not more than | of an inch ; what must be the depth of the 
beam, supposing the breadth 8 inches? 

IG X 8000 

onv^^os. >-/. = 151^5 -^ 8 = 3V1897 = 12.35 in., the depth. 

To determine the absolute strength of a rectangular beam of timber^ ivhen supported 
at both ends, and loaded in the middle of its length, as beams in general ought to 
be calculated to, so that they may be rendered capable of withstanding all accident- 
al cases of emergency. 
Rule.— Multiply the tabular value of S by four times the depth of the beam in 

inches, and by the area of the cross section in inches ; divide the product by the 

distance between the supports in inches, and the quotient will be the absolute 

strength of the beam in lbs. 

Note 1.— If the beam be not laid horizontally, the distance between the supports, for 
calculation, must be the horizontal distance. 

Note 2.— One fourth of the weight obtained by the rule, is the creatcst weight that ought 
to be applied in practice as permanent load. 

Note .'5.— If the load is to be applied at any other point than the middle, then the strength 
will be ns tlic product of the two distances is to the square of hnlf the length of the beam 
between the supports ;— or, twice the distance from one end, multiplied by twice from the 
other, and divided by the whole length, equal the effective length of the beam. 

Ex. In a building 18 feet in width, an engine boiler of 5,'> tons (2210 lbs. to a 
Ion) is to be fixed, the center of which lo he 7 feet from the wall, and having two 
pieces of red pine, 10 inches by G, which I can lay across the two walls for the 
purpose of slinging it at each end,— may I with suflicieni confidence apply them, 
so as to eflect this object ? 

22iOX''5.5 -^ 2 = CIGO lbs. to carry at each end. 

And 18 feet — 7 = 11, double each, or 14 and 22, then 14X'^2 -f- 13 = 17 feet, 
or '204 inches, eflective length of beam. 

Tabular value of S, red pine, =i;34IX4Xl^X^»0 -^ 204 = 1577G lbs. the abso- 
lute strength of each piece of limber at that point. 



142 STRENGTH OF RECTANGULAR BEAMS. 

To determme the dimensions of a rectangular beam capable of supporting a required 
weighty with a given degree of defection, whenfxed at one end. 

Rule. — Divide the weight to be supported, in lbs., by the tabular value of E, 
multiplied by the breadth and deflection, both in inches ; and the cube root of the 
quotient, muliiplied by the length in feet, equal the depth required m inches. 

Ex. A beam of ash is intended to bear a load of 700 lbs. at its extremity ; its 
length being 5 feet, breadth 4 inches, and the deflection not to exceed ^ an inch. 

Tabular value of E = 119X4X-5 = 238 the divisor ; 

then 700 — 238 = 3^2.94 X 5 = 7.25 inches, depth of the beam. 

Tofnd the absolute strength of a rectangular beam, whenfxed at one end, and load' 
ed at the other 

Rule — Multiply the value of S by the depth of the beam, and by the area of 
its section, both in inches ; divide the product by the leverage in inches, and the 
quotient equal the absolute strength of the beam in lbs. 

Ex. A beam of Riga fir, 12 inches by 4^, and projecting 6^ feet from the wall ; 
what is the greatest weight it will support at the extremity of its length ? 

Tabular value of S = 1100. 12X4.5 = 54 sectional area. 
Then, 1100X12X54 -^ 78 = 9138.4 lbs. 

When fracture of a beam is produced by vertical pressure, the fibres of the 
lower section of fracture are separated by extension, whilst at the same time 
those of the upper portion are destroyed by compression ; hence exists a point in 
section where neither the one nor the other takes place, and which is distinguished 
as the point of neutral axis. Therefore, by the law of fracture thus established, 
and proper data of tenacity and compression given, as in the preceding table, 
■we are enabled to form metal beams of strongest section vinth the least possible 
material. Thus, in cast iron, the resistance to compression is nearly as 6-^ to 1 
of tenacity, consequently a beam of cast iron, to be of strongest section, mast be 
of the following form, and a parabola in the direction of its length, 

ilhe quantity of material in the bottom flange being about 6^ times . 
that of the upper. But such is not the case with beams of tim- 
ber ; for although the tenacity of limber be on an average twice 
that of its resistance to compression, its flexibility is so great, 
that any considerable length of beam, where columns cannot be 
situated to its support, requires to be strengthened or trussed by 
iron rods, as in the following manner. 




f^j^ 



And these applications ofprinciple not only tend to. diminish deflection, but the 
required purpose is also more effectively attained, and that by lighter pieces of 
limber. 

To ascertain the absolute strength of a cast iron beam of the preceding form, or that 

of strongest section. 

Rule. — Multiply the sectional area of the bottom flange in inches by the depth 
of the beam in inches, and divide the product by the distance between the sup- 
ports, also in inches ; and 514 times the quotient equal the absolute strength of 
the beam in cwts. 

The strongest form in which any given quantity of matter can be disposed is 
that of a hollow cylinder; and it has been demonstrated that the maximum of 
strength is obtained in cast iron, when the thickness of the annulus, or ring, 
amounts to one-fifth of the cylinder's external diameter ; the relative strength of 
a solid to that of a hollow cylinder being as the diameters of their sections. ( See 
Tables.) 



WEIGHT CAST IRON BEAMS WILL SUSTAIN. 



143 



A Table showing the Weight or Pressure a beam of Cast Iron, 1 inch in 
breadth, wilt sustain, without destroijing its elastic Jorce, when it is sup' 
ported at each end, and loaded in the middle of its length, and also the 
deflection in the middle which that weight will produce. By Mr. 
Hodgkinson, Manchester. 



Length. 


6 feet. 


7 feet. 


8 feet. 


9 feet. 


10 feet. 


Depth 


Weight 
in lbs. 

1278 


L>efl. 


Weight 1 Defl. 


Weight Defl. 


Weight 


Defl. 


Weight j Defl. 


in in. 


in in* 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. in in. 


in lbs. 


in in. 


in lbs. |in in 


3 


.24 


1089 


.33 


954 


.426 


855 


.54 


765 


.66 


34 


1739 


.205 


1482 


.28 


1298 


.365 


1164 


.46 


1041 


.57 


4 


2272 


.18 


1936 


.245 


1700 


.32 


1520 


.405 


1360 


.5 


4i 


2S75 


.16 


2450 


.217 


2146 


.284 


1924 


36 


1721 


.443 


5 


3560 


.144 


3050 


.196 


2650 


.256 


2375 


.32 


2125 


.4 


6 


5112 


.12 


4356 


.163 


3816 


.213 


3420 


.27 


3060 


.33 


7 


6958 


.103 


5929 


.14 


5194 


.183 


4655 


.23 


4165 


.29 


8 


9088 


.09 


7744 


.123 


6784 


.16 


6080 


.203 


5440 


.25 


9 






9801 


.109 


8586 


.142 


7695 


.18 


6885 


.22 


10 






12100 


.098 


10600 


.128 


9500 


.162 


8500 


.2 


11 










12826 


.117 


11495 


.15 


10285 


.182 


12 










15264 


.107 


13680 


.135 


12240 


.17 


13 














16100 


.125 


14400 


.154 


14 














18600 


.115 


16700 


.143 




12 feet. 


14 feet. 


16 feet. 


18 feet. 


20 feet. 


6 


2548 


•48 


2184 


.65 


1912 


.85 


1699 


1.08 


1530 


1.34 


7 


3471 


.41 


2975 


.58 


2603 


.73 


2314 


.93 


2082 


1.14 


8 


4532 


.36 


3884 


.49 


3396 


.64 


3020 


.81 


2720 


1.00 


9 


5733 


.32 


4914 


.44 


4302 


.57 


3825 


.72 


3438 


.89 


10 


7083 


.28 


6071 


.39 


5312 


.51 


4722 


.64 


4250 


.8 


11 


8570 


.26 


7346 


.36 


6428 


.47 


5714 


.59 


5142 


.73 


12 


10192 


.24 


8736 


.33 


7648 


.43 


6796 


.54 


6120 


.67 


13 


11971 


.22 


10260 


.31 


8978 


.39 


7980 


.49 


7182 


.61 


14 


13883 


.21 


11900 


.28 


10412 


.36 


9255 


.46 


8330 


.57 


15 


15937 


.19 


13660 


.26 


11952 


.34 


10624 


.43 


9562 


.53 


16 


18128 


.18 


15536 


.24 


13584 


.32 


12080 


.40 


10880 


.5 


17 


20500 


.17 


17500 


.23 


15353 


.30 


13647 


.38 


12282 


.47 


18 


22932 


.16 


19656 


.21 


17208 


.28 


15700 


.36 


13752 


.44 



Note. — This Table shows the greatest weight that ever ought to be laid upon 
abeam for permanent load ; and, if there be any liability to jerks, &c., ample 
allowance must be made ; also, the weight of the beam itself must be included. 
{See Tables of Cast Iron,) 

To find the weight of a cast iron beam of given dimensions. 
Rule. — Multiply the sectional area in inches by the length in feet, and by 3.2, 
the product equal the weight in lbs. 

Ex. Required the weight of a uniform rectangular beam of cast iron, 16 feet 
in length, 11 inches in breadth, and 1} inch m thickness. 

11 X 1-5 X 16 X 3.2 = 844.8 lbs. 
RESISTANCE OF BODIES TO FLEXURE BY VERTICAL PRESSURE. 
When a piece of timber is employed as a column or support, its tendency to 

Jrielding by compression is diflerent according to the proportion between its 
englh and area of its cross section ; and supposing the form that of a cylinder 
whose lengtli is less than seven or eight times its diameter, it is impossible to 
bend it by any force applied longitudinally, as it will be destroyed by splitting 
before that bending can take place ; but when the length exceeds this, the col- 
umn will bend under a cerluin load, and be ullimalery destroyed by a similar 



144 ELASTICITY OF TORSION. 

kind of action to that which has place in the transverse strain. Columns of cast 
iron and of other bodies are also similarly circumstanced. 

When the lengih ofa cast iron column wiih flat ends equals about thirty limes 
its diameter. I'raciure will be produced wholly by bending of'the material. When 
of less lengih, fracture takes place partly by crushing and partly by bending. 
But, when^the column is enlarged in the middle of its lengih trom one and a half 
to twice its diameter at the ends, by being cast hollow, the strength is greater by 
one-seventh than in a solid column containing the same quaniiiy of material. 
To deter77ii7ie the dimensions ofa support or rohnnn to bear, without sensible curvu' 

ture, a given pressure in the direction of its axis. 

Rule. — Mubiply the pressure to be supported in lbs. by the square of the col- 
umn's lengih in feel, aiwl divide the product by twenty times the tabular value of 
E ; and the quotient will be equal to the breadth mullipliexl by the cube of lh& 
least thickness, both being expressed in inches. 

Note 1.— When the pillar or support is a square, it3 side will be the fourth root of the 
quotient. 

Note 2.- If the pillar or column be a cylinder, multiply the tabular value of E by 12, 
and the fourth root of the quotient equal the diameter. 

Ex. 1. What shoHld be the least dimensions of an oak support, to bear a 
weight of 2240 lbs, without sensible flexure, its breadth being 3 inches, and its 
lengih 5 feet? 

Tabular value of E = 105, 

Ex. 2 Required the side ofa square piece of Riga fir, 9 feet in length, to bear 

a permanent weight of 6000 lbs. 

Tabular value of E = 96, 

6000 X 92 

and— — r/-^ = ^'^^^^3 = 4 inches nearly. 

ELASTICITY OF TORSION, OR RESISTANCE OF BODIES TO TWISTING. 

The angle of flexure by torsion is as the length and extensibility of the body 
directly and inversely as the diameter; hence, the length of a bar or shaft being 
given, the power, and the leverage the power acts with, being known, and also 
the number of degrees of torsion that will not affect the action of the machine, to 
determine the diameter in cast iron with a given angle of flexure. 

Rule. — Multiply the power in lbs. by the length of the shaft in feet, and by the 
leverage in leet ; divide the product by fifty-five limes the number of de.grees in 
the angle of torsion ; and the fourth root of the quotient equal the shaft's diame- 
ter in inches. 

Ex. Required the diameters for a series of shafts 35 feet in lengih, and to 
transmit a power equal to l"24o lbs., acting at the circumference ot a wheel 2^ 
feet radius, so that the twist of the shafts on the application of the power may not 
exceed one degree. 

1*^45 V 35 V 2 5 

C'^.yC^ ' =-*V1951 .= 6.67 inches in diameter. 
Do X 1 
To determine the side ofa square shaft to resist torsion with a given flexure. 
Rule. — Multiply the power in pounds by the leverage it acts with in feet, and 
also by the lengih of the shaft in feet ; divide this product by 92.5 times the angle 
of flexure in degrees, and the square root of the quotient equals the area of the 
shaft in inches. 

Ex. Suppose the length of a shaft to be 12 feet, and to be driven by a power 
equal to 700 lbs., 8/?ting at 1 foot from the centre of the shaft — required the area 
of cross section, so that it may not exceed 1 degree of flexure. 

700 X 1 X 12 « 

9> 5X 1 = -^^^-^ -^ ^-^ inches. 
Relative strength of Bodies to resist Torsion^ Lead being 1. 

Tin 1.4 II Gun Metal .5.0 |! English Iron 10 1 

Copper 4.3 Cast Iron 9.0 I Blistered Steel 166 

Yellow Brass 4.6 II Swedish Iron 9.5 ll Shear Steel 17 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS GRIER, AND OTHERS. 145 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

l^From Griefs Mechanic's Calculator j d^c.] 

Bar of Iiion. — The average breaking weight of a Bar of Wrought Iron, 
l.inch square, is 25 tons 5 its elasticity is destroyed, however, by about two- 
fiflhs of that weight, or 10 tons. It is extended, within the limits of its elas- 
ticity, .000096, or one-tenthousandth part of an inch for every ton of strain 
per square inch of sectional area. Hence, the greatest constant load should 
never exceed one-fifth of its breaking weight, or 6 tons for every square 
inch of sectional area. 

The lateral strength of wrought iron, as compared with cast iron, is as 14 
to 9. Mr. Barlow finds that wrought iron bars, 3 inches deep, 1 1-2 inches 
thick, and 33 inches between the supports, will carry 4 1-2 tons. 

Bridges. — The greatest extraneous load on a square foot is about 120 
pounds. 

Floors. — The least load on a square foot is about 160 pounds. 

Roofs. — Covered with slate, on a square foot, 51 1-2 pounds. 

Beams. — When a beam is supported in the middle and loaded at each 
end, it will bear the same weight as when supported at both ends and load- 
ed in the middle ; that is, each end will bear half the weight. 

Cast Iron Beams should not be loaded to more than one-fifth of their 
ultimate strength. 

The strength of similar beams varies inversely as their lengths ; that is, 
if a beefm 10 feet long will support 1000 pounds, a similar beam 20 feet long 
would support only 500 pounds. 

A beam supported at one end will sustain only one-fourth part the weight 
which it would if supported at both ends. 

When a beam ia fixed at both ends, and loaded in the middle, it will bear 
one-half more than it will when loose at both ends. When the beam is load- 
ed uniformly throughout it will bear double. Whoji the beam is fixed at 
both ends, and loaded uniformly, it will bear triple the weight. 

In any beam standing obliquely, or in a sloping direction, its strength or 
strain will be equal to that of a beam of the same breadth, thickness, and 
material, but only of the length of the horizontal distance between the points 
of support. 

In the construction o? beams, it is necessary that their form should be 
such that they will be equally strong throughout. If abeam be fixed at one 
end, and loaded at the other, and the breadth uniform throughout its length, 
then, that the beam may be equally strong throughout, its form must be that 
of a parabola. This form is generally used in the beams of steam engines. 

VVhen a beam is regularly diminished towards the points that are least 
strained, so that all the sections are similar figures, whether it be supported 
at each end and loaded in the middle, or supported in the middle and load- 
ed at each end, the outline should be a cubic parabola. 

When a beam is supported at both ends, and is of the same breadth 
throughout, then, if the load be uniformly distributed throughout the length 
of the beam, the line bounding the compressed side should be a scmi-cllipse. 

The same form should be made use of for the rails of a wagon-way, 
where they have to resist the pressure of a load rolling over them. 

Similar filates of the same thickness, either supported at the ends or all 
round, will carry the same weight either uniformly disUibuted or laid on 
similar points, whatever be their extent. 

13 



146 STSEXGTH OF TiATEKIALS — GEIER. 

The lateral strensrth of any beam, or bar oC ircc-d. stone. m^tal.Scc, is id 
proportion to its breadih multiplied by its depth-. In square beams the 
lateral strengths are in proportion to \}te cube? of the sides, and in general 
oflike-sided~ beams as the cubes of the similar >ides of the section. 

The lateral strengih of any beam or bar, one end be'ng fixed in the wall 
and the other projecting, is inTersely as the distance of the weight from the 
section acted upon : and the strain upon any section is directly as the dis- 
tance of the weight from that section. 

The absolute strength of ropes or bars. pull<*d lengthwise, is in proportion 
to the squares of their diameters. All cylindrical or prismatic rods are 
equally strong in every part, if ihey are equally thick, but if not thej will 
break where ^he thickness is least. ' 

The strensrth of a tube, or hollow cylinder, is to the strength of a solid 
one as the difference between the fourth powers of the exterior and intenor 
diameters of the tube, dirided by the exterior diameter, is to the cube of 
the diameter ot a solid cylinder. — the quantity of matter in each being the 
same. IHence. from this it will be fotind. that a hollow cylinder is one-half 
stronger than a solid one having the same weight of materia). 

The strength of a column to resist being crushed is directly as the square 
of the diameter, provided it is not so long as to have a chance of bending. 
This is true in metals or stone, but in timber the proportion is rather greater 
than the square. 

MODELS PP.OPORTIOyED TO MACHI}»ZS. 

The relation of models to machines, as to sirengih. deserves the part'cn 
lar attention of the mechcinic. A model tazv be periectly proportioned in 
all its parts as a model, yet the machine, if constructed in the same propor- 
tion, will not be sufficiently strong in e^ery part^ hence, particular attention 
shonld be paid to the kind of strain the different parts are exposed to 5 and 
from the sta:e-er.:5 v,;,':^ *':":- --7 :;: :er dimensions ol the structure 
may be deier.T,:r.e,. 

If the ^.tc\tl :o c:?.'.v ;: : r: t if! be 1. and if the structure is 8 

times larger than ihe model, then •.:.? ^Tr-ris in the structure will be S^ equa^ 
512. If the structure is 6 times ?_> i?rre as the model, then the stress oi« 
the structure wil' ' "" ' 21': :. ^ : £ : : :. : therefore, the structure will be 

much less firm li -. : :-:.: .::5 ..e more, as the structure is cube 

times greater th?-„ ...i „. ::-ei. If v, e \'-:ih to determine the greatest size 
we ean make a machine of which we have a model, we have. 

The greatest weight which the beam of the model can bear, divided by 
the weight which it actually sustains equal a quotient which, when multi- 
plied by the size of the t^eam in the mode); will give the greatest possible 
size of the same beam in the structure. 

Ex. — If a beam in the mod#l be 7 inches long, and bear a weight of 4 lbs. 
but is capable of bearing a weight of 26 lbs. ;~ what is the greatest length 
which we can make the corresponding beam in the structure ? Here 
26 -^ 4 = 6-5, thereibre, 60 x ~ = -lo-o inches. 

The strength to resist crushing, increases from a model to a stnictare m 
proportion to their size. but. as above, the strain increases as the cubes; 
wherefore, in this case. also, the model will be stronger than the machine, 
and the CTeatest size of the structure will be found by employing the square 
TOOt of the quotient in the last rule, instead of the quotient itself: thus, 

If the greatest w^eight which the column in a model can bear is 3 cwt., 
and if it actually bears^2S lbs., then, if the colunan be IS inches high, we baye 

\/(^ ) = 3-4^ ; wherefore 34Si X 18 = 62-^52 
inches, the lensnh of the column in the structure. 



STRENGTH OF MATERIALS ADCOCK. 147 

STRENGTH OF MATERIALS. 

[From Adcock's Engineer.'] 

List of metals, arranged according to their strength. — Steel, wrought- 
iron, cast-iron, platinum, silver, copper, brass, gold, tin, bismuth, zinc, anti- 
mony, lead. 

According to Tredgold's and Duleau's experiments, a piece of the best 
bar-iron 1 square inch across the end would bear a weight of about 77,373 
lbs., while a similar piece of cast-iron would be torn asunder by a weight 
of from 16,243 to 19,464 lbs. Thin iron wires, arranged parallel to each 
other, and presenting a surface at their extremity of 1 square inch, will 
carry a mean weight of 126,340 lbs. 

List of woods, arranged according to their strength. — Oak, alder, lime, 
box, pine {sylv.), ash, elm, yellow pine, fir. 

A piece of well-dried pine wood, presenting a section of 1 square inch, is 
able, according to Eytelwein, to support a weight of from 15,646 lbs. to 
20,408 lbs., whilst a similar piece of oak will carry as much as 25,850 lbs. 

Hempen cords, twisted, will support the following weights to the square 
inch of their section i 

^-inch to 1 inch thick, 8,746 lbs.; 1 to 3 inches thick, 6,800 lbs,; 3 to 5 
inches thick, 5,345 lbs.; 5 to 7 inches thick, 4,860 lbs. 

Tredgold gives the following rule for finding the weight in lbs. which a 
hempen rope will be capable of supporting: Multiply the square of the 
circumference in inches by 200, and the product will be the quantity sought. 

In the practical application of these measures of absolute strength, that 
of metals should be reckoned at one-half, and that of woods and cords at 
one-third of their estimated value. 

In a parallelopipedon of uniform thickness, supported on two points and 
loaded in the middle, the lateral strength is directly as the product of the 
breadth into the square of the depth, and inversely as the length. Let W 
represent the lateral strength of any material, estimated by the weight, b the 
breadth, and d the depth of its end, and I the distance between the points of 
support ; then W = fd-b -~ l. 

If the parallelopipedon be fastened only at one end in a horizontal posi- 
tion, and' the load be applied at the opposite end, W = fd^b -r- 4:1. 

It is to be observed that the three dimensions, b, d, and /, are to be taken 
in the same measure, and that b be so great that no lateral curvature arise 
from the weight ;yin each formula represents the lateral strength, which 
varies in different materials, and which must be learnt experimentally. 

A beam having a rectangular end, whose breadth is two or three times 
greater than the breadth of another beam, has a power of suspension re- 
spectively two or three times greater than it; if the end be two or three 
times deeper than the end of the other, the suspension power of that which 
has the greater depth exceeds the suspension power of the other, four or 
nine times ; if its length be two or three times greater than the length of 
another beam, its power of suspension will be 1^ or 1-3 respectively that of 
the other ; provided that in each case the mode of suspension, the position 
of the weight, and other circumstances be similar. Hence it follows that a 
beam, one of whose sides tapers, has a greater power of suspension if 
placed on the slant than on the broad side, and that the powers of suspen- 
sion in both cases are in the ratio of their sides ; so, for instance, a beam, 
one of whose sides is double the width of the other, will carry twice as 
much if placed on the narrow side, as it would if laid on the wide one. 

In a piece of round timber (a cylinder) the power of suspension is in 
proportion to the diameters cubed, and inversely as the length ; thus a 
beam with a diameter two or three times longer than that of anotlicr, will 
carry a weight 8 or 27 times heavier respectively than that whose diameter 
is unity, the inode of fasteuiug and loading it being similar in both cases. 



148 STRENGTH OF MATERIALS — ADCOCK. 



The lateral strength of square timber is to that of a tree whence it is 
hewn as 10 : 17 nearly. 

A considerable advantage is frequently secured by using hollow cylinders 
instead of solid ones, which, with an equal expenditure of materials, have 
far greater strength, provided only that the solid part of the cylinder be of 
a sufficient thickness, and that the workmanship be good ; especially that 
in cast metal beams the thickness be uniform, and the metal free from 
flaws. According to Eytehvein, such hollow cylinders are to solid ones of 
equal weight of metal as 1.212 : 1, when the inner semi-diameter is to the 
outer as 1 : 2; according to Tredgold as 17 : 10, when the two semi-diame- 
ters are to each other as 15 : 25, and as 2 : 1, when they are to each other as 
7 : 10. 

A method of increasing the suspensive power of timber supported at 
both ends, is, to saw down from ^ to J of its depth, and forcibly drive in a 
wedge of metal or hard wood, until the timber is slightly raised at the mid- 
dle out of the horizontal line. By experiment it was found that the suspen- 
sive power of a beam thus cut 1-3 of its depth was increased l-19th, when 
cut 4 it was increased l-29th, and when cut 3-4:th through it was increased 
l-87th. 

The force required to crush a body increases as the section of the body 
increases ; and this quantity being constant, the resistance of the body 
diminishes as the height increases. 

According to Eytelwein's experiments, the strength of celumns or tim- 
bers of rectangular form in resisting compression is, as 

1. The cube of their thickness (the lesser dimension of their section). 
2. As the breadth (the greater dimension of their section). 3. inversely as 
the square of their length. 

Cohesive power of Bars of Metal one inch square, in Tons. 

Iron, Swedish bar 29.20 

Do., Russian bar 26.70 

Do., English bar . ; . . . 25.00 

Steel, cast 59.93 

Do., blistered 59.43 

Do., sheer 56.97 



Copper, wrought . . . 15.08 

Gun metal ... . -. . 16.23 

Copper, cast 8.51 

Brass, cast, yellow . . . 8.01 

Iron, cast 7-87 

Tin, cast ... . . . 2.11 



RELATIVE STRENGTH OF CAST AND MALLEABLE IRON. 

It has been found, in the course of the experiments made by Mr. Hodg- 
kinson and Mr. Fairbairn, that the average strain that cast iron will bear in 
the way of tension, before breaking, is about seven tons and a half per 
square inch ; the weakest, in the course of 16 trials on various descriptions, 
bearing 6 tons, and the strongest 9 3-4 tons. The experiments of Tellbrd 
and Brown show that malleable iron will bear, on an average, 27 tons 5 the 
weakest bearing 24, and the strongest 29 tons. On approaching the break- 
ing point, cast iron may snap in an instant, without any previous symptom, 
while wrought iron begins to stretch, with half its breaking weight, and so 
continues to stretch till it breaks. The experiments of Hodgkinson and 
Fairbairn show also that cast iron is capable of sustaining compression to 
the extent of nearly 50 tons on the square mch 3 the weakest bearing 36J 
tons, and the strongest 60 tons. In this respect, malleable iron is much in- 
ferior to cast iron. With 12 tons on the square inch it yields, contracts in 
length, and expands laterally 5 though it will bear 27 tons, or more, without 
actual fracture. 

Rennie states that cast iron may be crushed with a weight of 93,000 lbs., 
and brick with one of 562 lbs. on the square inch. 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



149 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 

[From Lowndes^ Engineer's Hand-hook, -^Lwerpool, I860.] 
SOLID, RECTANGULAR, AND ROUND I TO FIND THEIR STRENGTH. 
Square and rectangular. 
(Depth ins.)^ X Thickness ins. 



Length, ft. 



X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 



Round. 



(Diameter ms. ^ m , , ivt t, i • • i . 

—Y r-- — 7^-^ X 1 abular No. = Breaking weierht, tons. 

Length in ft- & & ; 



Hollow. 



(Outside dia. ins. )^ — (Inside dia. ins.) r,^ , , ,vt r» i- • w 

■^ ^ — ' ^- ^ X Tabular No. = Breaking weight 

tons. 



Thickness not exceeding 



1 inch for iron, j 2 ins. for iron. | 3 ins. for iron. 
3 ins. for wood. I 6 ins. for wood. 12 ins. for wood. 



Square and Rectangular. 



Cast and Wrought Iron 


1 


•85 


•7 


Teak and greenheart 


•36 


•32 


•26 


Pitch pine, and Cana- 








dian oak .... 


•25 


•22 


•18 


Fir, red pine, and Eng- 








lish oak .... 


•18 


•16 


•13 



Round. 



Cast and Wrought Iron 
Teak and greenheart . 
Fir and Eng-lish oak . 



•8 

•28 

•14 



•25 
•125 



•56 

•2 

•1 



To find the Breaking Weight in lbs. use the Tabular No. below. 



Thickness not exceeding j 



1 inch for iron. 
3 ins. for wood. 



2 ins. for iron. 
6 ins. for wood. 



3 ins. for iron. 
12 ins. for wood. 



Square and Rectangular. 



Iron 


2240 


1900 


1570 


Teak 


800 


710 


570 


Fir and oak .... 


400 


355 


285 



13* 



150 BEAMS — CAST IRON FLANGED. 

Round. 



Iron 


1800 


1570 


1260 


Teak 


640 


570 


460 


Fir and oak .... 


320 


285 


230 



Though wrought and cast iron are represented in these rules as of equal 
strength, it should be observed that while a cast iron bar 1 inch X 1 inch X 
1 foot inch long, of average quality, will break with one ton, a similar bar 
of wrought iron only loses its elasticity, and deflects l-16th of an inch, yet 
as it can only carry a further weight by destroying its shape and increasing 
the deflection^ it is best to calculate on the above basis : — 

^ 1-16 with 1 ton. 

A wrought iron bar 1 in. X 1 in. X 1 ft. in. long C deflects 1-8 " H '^ 

> 2 1-2 " 2i " 

The above rule gives the weight that will break the beam if put on the 
middle. If the weight is laid equally all over, it would require double 
the weight to break it. 

A beam should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight 
in any case, and as a general rule not with more than 1-4, for purposes of 
machinery not with more than 1-6 to 1-10 depending on circumstances. 

To find the proper size for any given purpose. 

Rectangular. 

Weight X Length ft. _ „ . . . j- . • 

%r-, — j — ^ X 3 or 4 or 6, &c. according to circumstances = 

Tabular No. ' ^ 

B d2 ins. 



Round. 



V. 



Weight X Length, ft, _ o ^ /? o j- . • 

^ . ■ — ^ — — X 3 or 4 or 6, &c. accordmg to circumstances 



= diam. ins. 



CAST IRON WITH FEATHEBS OR FLAXGES *. TO FIND THEIR STRENGTH. 

Sec. area, bottom flansfe ins. X depth ins. _ „ , . • w . 

= r—. — J X 2 = Breaking weight, tons. 

Length in feet. & b ; 

If the metal exceeds 1 inch in thickness deduct l-8th. 

If above 2 inches deduct l-4th. 

This description of beam is of the strongest form, when the sectioned area 
of the bottom flange is six times that of the top flange. 

In designing this description of beam, the bottom flange ma\' be from 1-2 
to 1 1-2 the depth of beam; the top flange from 1-4 to 1-3 the width of 
the bDitom one, and 2-3 to 1-2 the thickness of it ; the feather being made 
at the top a Uttle thicker than the top flange, increasing to the bottom to 
nearly the thickness of the bottom flange 3 in this way avoiding any sud- 
den variation in the thickness and saving weight ; many engineers, however, 
prefer keeping the same thickness throughout in every part. The verti- 
cal brackets for stiffening the girder should not be made straight, but hol- 
lowed out something like the sketch, as thus they are much less liable to 
crack, and all the corners should be well filled in. 

In most cases it is necessary that the beam should be of uniform 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



151 



depth throughout ; it will, however, save weight, without diminishing the 
strength of the beam, if the width of the bottom flange be reduced very 
considerably towards the ends 3 1-2 of the width of the middle being quite 
sufficient ; care being taken to maintain a sufficient surface for bearing, if 
the beam has to be carried on a wall. 




Fig. 2. 



WEOUGHT IRON BEAMS. 

Girders. — The sketch shows a very strong form for this description of 
girder, when rolled solid. The top 



^^NS^J^^»^\VXVN^N^^^.\vvx\\v^,^N\\\^^^^ 



^1 



Fi^. 4. 



flange being condensed and square is 
in a good form to resist compression 5 
the bottom flange has a wider surface 
to rest on, and the middle rib is light 5 
an experimental beam of this description 8 ins. deep and 11 feet long re- 
quiring 5 tons to break it. 

'J'he top flange should have a sectional area 1 1-2 times that of the bottom. 

When thus proportioned : 
Sec. area top flange, ins. X depth ins. _ r. 1 • • . • 
^Ungth feet: ^ ^ =" Breakmg weight m tons. 

This is an inferior shape. 

In such a beam the top flange should have an area 
1 3-4 that of the bottom flange. 

When thus proportioned : 
Sec. area top flange ins. X depth ins. 

Length feet, 
weight, tons. 

Beams of the above forms, made of plates and of L iron, are of equal 
strength with the above 5 care being taken to make the bottom flange of 
double })hites, with joint plates over the butts, allowing a liitlo extra area 
in tiie bottom to compensate for the rivet holes, though this is not necessary 
if they are rivcttcd up by steam. 



X 4 = Breaking 




152 



STRENGTH OF BEAMS. 



Fig. 5. 



WROUGHT IRON BEAMS. 

Hollow Girders. — The sketch represents the form 
for hollow girders combining- the greatest strength 
with the least weight, the top beings in the best form 
for resisting compression. 

The proportion of the bottom sectional area to that 
of the top should be as 11 to 12, or 4-0 5 and the sides 
should be well stiffened with angle iron, to keep them 
from buckling ; the sectional area of the top and bot- 
tom may be reduced at the extremities to 1 -3 of the 
area at the middle, without diminishing the strength of 
the beam. 

When thus proportioned : 
Section, area top, ins. X depth ins. 

Length feet, 
weight, tons. 

An experimental beam of this form, 75 feet long between supports, 4 feet 
6 inches deep, with 6 cells at the top, about 6 inches square each, with a 
sectional area 24 sq. ins., the sides stiffened with 1 1-2 L irons, 2 feet apart, 
required 86 tons to break it. 
Fig. 6. 

In the plain hollow girder the top should have a sectional 
area 1 3-4 that of the bottom. 

Thus proportioned : 

Section, area top, in s. X depth ins. 
Length feet. 



X 5 = Breaking 



X 4 = Breaking weight 



tons. 



Tojind the strength of a round girder. 
Sec, area, ins. X dia . ins. 
Length feet. 



' = Breaking weight, tons. 



Tojind the strength of any beam. 

If the top flange is the weakest, find the compressive breaking strain in 
tons per square inch due to its shape, thickness, and length. (See Columns.) 

If the bottom is the weakest, find the tensional breaking strain of the 
material in tons per square inch. 

Then, 

weakest flange ^ breaking strain, tons per in. X depth of beam f\. X 4 

Length between supports, feet. 
= Breaking weight, tons. 

This rule will be found useful, either to confirm the results obtained from 
the previous rules, or to find the strength of any beams of irregular shape 
not included in them. 

The mode of ascertaining the compression and tension on the top and 
bottom flanges of beams is sufficiently simple. 

Take the case of a beam, 20 feet long, 2 feet deep, with a weight of 20 
tons on the middle 3 the force counteracting this weight will be 10 tons on 



I 



SOLID COLUMNS. 



153 



each end 3 the force of compression at the top in the middle of the beam, 
and that of tension at the bottom, taking the central weight as the fulcrum, 
will be just in proportion to the leverage 5 in this case, as 10 to 2, or 6 to 1. 
The force of 10 tons applied to the end will thus result in a force of 50 tons 
of compression and tension on the flanges in the middle of the beam. Or 
in a simple form, 

Weight^^tons X length, feet ^ ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^^^ 

Depth, feet X 4 ^ ^ ' 

The ultimate compressive strength of boiler plate iron may be taken at 
16 tons per square inch, the tensile strength at 20 tons per square inch 3 and 
this is the reason why, in all wrought iron beams, the top requires to be the 
strongest. 

But as in cast iron the compressive strength is about 48 tons, while the 
tensile strength is only about 7 tons per square inch, the bottom flange ia 
cast iron girders requires to be much the strongest. 

The fullest information on this subject, and the experiments in detail, 
will be found in Mr. Eaton Hodgkinson's experiments on the strength of 
cast iron beams, and in Mr. Edwin Clark's work on the Britannia and Con- 
way tubular bridges. 



SOLID COLUMNS. 



Fail by crushing with length under ---------5 diameters* 

Principally b}' crushing from --------- 5 to 15 '' 

Partly by crushing, partly by bending, from - - - 15 to 25 " 
Altogether by bending above ----------25 ^' 



Cast iron of average quality is crushed with - - 49 tons per square inch. 

Wrought iron of average quality is crushed with 16 " " " 

Wrought iron is permanently injured with - - - 12 " " " 

Oak wrought is crushed with - - 4 " " " 

Deal wrought is crushed with ------- 2 " ^' *' 

The comparative strength of different columns, of different lengths, will 
be seen very clearly from the following table derived from experiments by 
Mr. Hodgkinson : — 



Wrought 


Iron Bars. 


Proportion of Length 
to Thickness. 


Gave way \vith 


Square. 


Length. 






ins. 


ft. ins. 




IX 1 


74 


74tol 


21-7 tons per sq. inch 




1 3 


15 to 1 


154 


it 


2 6 


30 to 1 


113 


(( 


5 


60 to 1 


7-5 


(< 


7 6 


90 to 1 


4-3 


4x4 


5 


120 to 1 


25 




7 6 


180 to 1 


1- 



To find the strength of any wrought iron column with square ends. 

Area of column sq. inches x tons per inch corresponding to proportion of 
length, as per table above = Breaking weight, tons. 



154 



STRENGTH OF COLTTMNS. 



If the ends are rounded^ divide the final result by 3 to find the breaking 
weight; 

In columns of oblong- section, the narrowest side must alwaj^s be taken in 
calculating- the proportion of height to width. 

To find the strength of round columns exceeding 25 diameters in length. 
Mr. Hod^kinson^s rule. 



(Diameter, ins.)^-^ 
(Length, ft.)^-7 



X Tabular No. = Breaking weight, tons. 



Wrought iron 
Cast iron 
Dantzic oak 
Red deal 




Rounded or Moveable 
Ends. 



26 

15 
17 
1-2 



A column should not be loaded with more than 1-3 of the breaking weight 
in any case, and as a general rule, not with more than 1-4 5 for purposes of 
machinery not with more than 1-6 to I-IO, according to circumstances. 

Tables of Powers for the Diameters and Lengths of Columns. 



Diameter. 


3-6 Power. 


Diameter. 


3-6 Power. 


1 in. 


1- 


7 in. 


1102-4 


k 


2-23 


i 


1251- 


h 


4-3 


i 


1413-3 


1 


75 


1 


1590-3 


2 


121 


8 


1782-9 


i 


18-5 


i 


1991-7 


h 


27- 


h 


2217-7 


1 


3816 


i 


2461-7 


3 


522 


9 


2724-4 


^ 


69-63 


i 


3006-85 


^ 


90-9 


4 


3309-8 


1 


116-55 


1 


3634-3 


4 


147- 


10 


398107 


k 


182-9 


A 


4351-2 


h 


22468 


i 


4745-5 


1 


272-96 


1 


5165- 


5 


328-3 


11 


56107 


^ 


391-36 


A 


6083-4 


^ 


462-71 


4 


6584-3 


i 


543-01 


1 


7114-4 


6 


63291 


12 


7674-5 


^ 


73311 






^ 


844-28 






i 


96715 







Length. 


1-7 Power. 


1 


1- 


2 


325 


3 


6-47 


4 


10 556 


5 


15-426 


6 


21031 


7 


27-332 


8 


34-297 


9 


41-9 


10 


50119 


11 


58-934 


12 


68-329 


13 


78 289 


14 


88-8 


15 


99-85 


16 


111-43 


17 


123-53 


18 


136-13 


19 


149-24 


20 


162-84 


21 


176-92 


22 


191-48 


23 


206-51 


24 


222 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 



155 



HOLLOW COLUMNS. 

Hollow columns fail principally by crushing, provided the length does 
not exceed 25 diameters; indeed, the length does not appear to affect the 
strength much till it exceeds 50 diameters. 

The comparative strength of different forms and" of different thicknesses 
will appear so distinctly from the experiments below, made by Mr. Hodg- 
kinson, that no difficulty will be found in ascertaining the strength due to 
any size or form of column that may be required. 

Square Columns of Plate Iron Rivetted 



Columns 10 ft. in. long 



Size. 



4 in. X 4 in 



8 in. X 8 in. 



Thick- 
ness. 



•03 
•06 

•1 

•2 

•06 
•14 
•22 
•25 



Proportion of 
Thickness to Width. 



1 as 
1 

1 

2-0- 

¥^ 

1 

-^2 



Proportion of Break'g weight 
Length Tons per sq. in. 
to Width. of section. 



30 to 1 
(( 

(C 

<( 

15 to 1 



4^9 

8-6 
10^ 
12- 

6- 

9- 
11-5 
12- 



Column Sfeet inches long. 


18 X 18 


•5 


J^y practically 


5-4 to 1 


13^6 


Column 10 feet inches long., with Cells. 


8 in. X 8 in. 


•06 


^^^ of width of cells 


15 to 1 


8-6 



To find the strength of any Hollow Wrought Iron Column. 

Q . Tons per inch, corresponding to the proportions of 

oec. area, sq. ins. x j^^g^j^ ^^^ thickness to width as per tables - 
Breaking weight, tons. 

Columns of Oblong Section. 

The strength of these may be ascertained by the same rule as that of 
square columns. The smallest width being taken in calculating the pro- 
portion of height to width, while the longest side must be taken into consid- 
eration in calculating the proportion of thickness to width. 







Column 10 feet inches long. 




Size. 


Thick- 
ness. 


Proportion of 

Thickness to 

greatest Width. 


Proportion of 

Length to least 

Widih. 


Actual Breaking 
Weight Tons per 
sq. ill. of Section. 


8 in. X4in. 


•06 


TT^TT 


30 to 1 


6-78 



156 



STRENGTH OF COLUMNS. — CRANE. PUMP. 



Round Columns of Plate Iron Riveited. 



Columns 10 ft. in. Ions 



Dia- T 


hick- 


meter, r 


less. 


H 


•1 


2 


•1 


2i 


1 


24 


24 


H 


21 


3 


15 


4 


15 


6 


1 


6 


13 



Proportion 
of thick- 
ness to 
Diameter. 

m 

I 5 

_1_ 

I I 
_1_ 

12 
1 

1 

_1 
4F 



Proportion 
of length to 
Diameter. 

80 to 1 
60tol 
48tol 
48tol 
48 to 1 
40 to 1 
30 to 1 
20tol 
20tol 



Breaking 
Weight. 
Tons per 
sq. inch. 



6-5 
10-35 

O O 

9-6* 
9-9 

12-36 

12-34 

15- 

18-6 



Same Columns 
Reduced in Length, 



Breaking Weights. 
Tons per square inch. 



5 ft. in. long. 2 ft. 6 in. long, 



13-9 

14-8 

156 

156 

13- 

13- 

13- 

17- 



5-8 
16-5 
16-3 
16- 
17- 
16-5 

186 



It would seem from this that a thickness of 1-48, or 1-4 inch in thickness 
for every foot in diameter is a good proportion for this kind of column. 

It will be seen from these experiments, that it is the proportion of thick- 
ness to the width of cell which regulates the strength within certain limits 
of height. 

And that a thickness of 1-30 or 1-8 inch for every 4 inches in width will 
give the highest result practicable for square columns. 



CRANE. 

The strains on the principal parts can be ascertained with great ease in 
the following manner— the strength being proportioned accordingly. 

To find the strain on the post. 

Weight suspended, tons X Projection, feet 
Height of post above ground, feet 
The post can then be calculated as a beam, twice as long as this height 
from ground, with twice the weight on the middle. [See Beams.'] 



• = Strain on top of post, tons. 



COLD WATER PUMP. 

Usually 1-4 of cylinder diameter when the stroke is 1-2 that of piston. 
1-3 ^< ^' 1-4 

To find the proper size, under amj circumstances, capable of supplying twice 

the quantity ordinarily used for injection. 
Cub. ft. water per hour used in cylinder in form of steam _ . 

Stroke of pump, ft. X strokes per miliute ~" ^""^P 

in square feet. 



VELOCITY OF FANS. 



157 



FAN. 

Case should be strong and heavy. Bearings long. 
Blades and arms as light and well balanced as possible. 
Good proportions — 

Inlet = J diameter of fan, 

Blades = J diameter of fan each way, 

Outlet = area of blades. 
The area of tuyeres is most advantageous when made 
area of blades 

density of blast, oz. per sq. inch, 
and it should not exceed double this size. 

VELOCITY OF FANS. 

Tlie best Velocity of Circumference for different Densities, 



Velocity of Circumference. 


Density of Blast. 


Feet per Second. 


Oz. per inch. 


170 


3 


180 


4 


195 


5 


205 


6 


215 


7 



A speed of 180 to 200 feet per second, giving a density of 4 or 5 
oz., is very suitable for smithy fires. 

250 to 300 feet per second is a proper speed for cupolas. 

A fan 4 feet inch diameter, blade 1 foot inch square, will sup- 
ply 40 fires with If tuyeres at a density of 4 oz. 

To find the Horse Power required for any fan. 

Let D = density of blast in oz. per inch. 

A = area of discharge at tuyeres in square inches. 
V = velocity of circumference in feet per second. 

— -- X D X A 

Then ^^"'^ = Effective Horse Power required. 

963 

To find the density to be attained with any given fan. 
Let D = diameter of fan in feet. 

, 2 






Then V"* / = Density of blast in oz. per inch. 

120 X d. 
Or the density may be found by comparison with the following 
table :■— 

14 



158 



FRICTION. — CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 



Velocity of Circumference. 
Feet per Second. 


Area 


of Nozzles. 


Density of Blast. 
Oz. per inch. 


150 


Twice 


area of blades 




1 


150 


Equal 


ditto 




2 


150 


1-2 


ditto 




3 


170 


1-4 


ditto 




4 


200 


1-2 


ditto 




4 


200 


1-6 


ditto 




6 


220 


1-3 


ditto 




6 



To find the quantity of air that will he delivered by any Fan, the 
density being known. 

Total area nozzles, sq. ft. X velocity, ft. per minute corresponding 
to density (as per table) = Air delivered, cubic ft. per minute. 



Density. 


Velocity. 


Density. 


Velocity. 


Oz. per Sq. Inch. 


Feet per Minute. 


Lbs. per Sq. Inch 


Feet per Minute. 


1 


5,000 


1 


20,000 


2 


7,000 


li 


24,500 


3 


8,600 


2 


28,300 


4 


10,000 


2i 


31,600 


5 


11,000 


3 


44,640 


6 


12.250 


4 


40,000 


7 


13,200 


6 


49,000 


8 


14,150 


8 


56.600 


9 


15,000 


10 


63,200 


10 


15,800 


12 


69,280 


11 


16,500 


15 


78,000 


12 


17,300 


20 


89,400 



FRICTION. 

From Mr. Rennie^s Experiments. 

The friction of metal on metal, without unguents. 
May be taken at 1-6 of the weight up to 40 lbs. per sq. in. 



15 

Brass on cast iron 1-4 '' 
Wrought on cast iron 1-3 " 
With tallow at 
" olive oil at 



100 

*< 800 " 

'« 500 «^ 

1-10 of the weight. 

1-13 " 



800 lbs. per inch forces out the oil. 
Friction of journals under ordinary circumstances 1-30 of weight. 
*' well oiled, sometimes only 1-60 *' 



CENTRIFUGAL FORCE. 
(Revolutions per min.)^ X dia. in ft. X weight 



in terms of weight. 



5870 



= Centrifugal force 



-TEMPERING. 159 



PEDESTAL — BRACKET. 

PEDESTAL. 

Good proportions. 
Thickness of cover '4 of diameter of bearing, 

of sole plate -3 
Diameter of bolts -25 « ** if 2. 

*« '' -18 " '« if there are 4. 

Distance between bolts twice diameter of bearing. 

BRACKET. 

Solid, Metal round brass equal to 1-2 diameter of bearing. 

General thickness web, &c. equal to 1-4 diameter of bearing. 
With feathers. Width at lightest equal to diameter of bearing. 
Thickness equal to 1-6 " " 



Straw - 


- 450 


Darker straw - 


- 470' 


Yellow - 


- 490 


Brown yellow 


- 500 



TEMPERING. 

The article after being completed, is hardened by being heated 
gradually to a bright red, and then plunged into cold water; it is then 
tempered by being warmed gradually and equably, either over a fire, 
or on a piece of heated metal till of the color corresponding to the 
purpose for which it is required, as per table below, when it is again 
plunged into water. 

Corresponding Temperature. 
A very pale straw . 430*^ Lancets \ 

"^ Razors < 

Penknives ) All kinds of wood tools 

' Scissors S Screw taps. 

' i Hatchets, Chipping Chisels, 
Slightly tinged purple 520*^ > Saws. 
Purple - - - 530'^ ) All kinds of percussive tools. 
Dark purple - - 550^=^ ) ^ - 
Blue - - - 570^5^P'^^gs- 
Dark blue - - 600? Soft for saws. 

To Temper by the Thermometer. 

Put the articles to be tempered into a vessel containing a sufficient 
quantity to cover them, of Oil or Tallow ; Sand ; or a mixture of 8 
parts bismuth, 5 of lead, and 3 of tin, the whole to be brought up to, 
and kept up at the heat corresponding to the hardness required, by 
means of a suitable thermometer, till heated equally throughout; the 
articles are then withdrawn and plunged into cold water. 

If no thermometer is available, it may be observed that oil or tallow 
begins to smoke at 430*^ or straw color, and that it takes fire on a light 
being presented, and goes out when the light is withdrawn, at 570*^ 
or blue. 

CASE HARDENING. 

Put the articles requiring to be hardened, after being finished but 
not polished, into an iron box in layers with animal carbon, that is. 



160 HEAT. SOLDERING. — BORING AND TURNING. 

horns, hoofs, skins, or leather, partly burned so as to be capable of 
being reduced to powder, taking care that every part of the iron is 
completely surrounded ; make the box tight with a lute of sand and 
clay in equal parts, put the whole into the fire, and keep it at a light 
red heat for half an hour to two hours, according to the depth of har- 
dened surface required, then empty the contents of the box into 
water, care being taken that any articles liable to buckle be put in 
separately and carefully, end in first. 

Cast iron may be case hardened as follows : — 

Bring to a red heat, and roll it in a mixture of powdered prussiate 
of potash, saltpetre and sal-ammoniac in equal parts, then plunge it 
into a bath containing 2 oz. prussiate of potash, and 4 oz. sal-ammo- 
niac per gallon of water. 



HEAT. 

EFFECTS OP HEAT AT CERTAIN TEMPERATURES. — GrIER. 

Tin and Bismuth, equal parts, melt at 283 degrees, Fahrenheit ; 
tin melts at 442 ; polished steel acquires straw color at 460 ; bismuth 
melts at 476; sulphur burns at 560; oil of turpentine boils at 560; 
polished steel acquires deep blue color al 580 ; lead melts at 594 ; lin- 
seed oil boils at 600; quicksilver boils at 660 ; zinc melts at 700 ; iron, 
bright red in the dark at 752 ; iron, red-hot in twilight at 884; red 
heat fully visible in daylight at 1077 ; brass melts at 3807 ; copper 
melts at 4587 ; silver melts at 4717 ; gold melts at 5237 ; welding heat 
of iron, from 12777 ; welding heat of iron, to 13427 ; greatest heat of 
smith's forge 17327; cast iron begins to melt at 17977; cast iron 
thoroughly melted at 20577. 



SOLDERING. 

The solder for joints requires to be of some metal more fusible than 
that of the substances to be joined. 

For Copper, usual solder 6 to 8 parts brass to 1 of zinc ; 1 of tin 
sometimes added. 

i^ still stronger solder, 3,parts brass, 1 of zinc. 

To prepare this solder. — Melt the brass in a crucible, when 
melted add in the zinc, and cover over for 2 or 3 minutes till the 
combination is effected, then pour it out, over a bundle of twigs, into 
a vessel of water, or into a mould composed of a number of little 
channels, so that the solder may be in long strips convenient for use. 

Brass filings alone will answer very well. 

To braze with this solder.^ Scrape the surfaces perfectly clean, 
and secure the flange or joint carefully ; cover the surfaces to be 
brazed with borax powder moistened ; apply the solder, and melt it 
in with the flame of a clear coke fire from a smith's hearth ; partic- 
ular care being taken not to burn the copper. 



BORmG AND TURNING. BRASS CASTINGS. 



161 



Iron and brass are soldered with spelter, which is brass and zinc in 
equal parts; the process being performed in a manner similar lo the 
above. For ironwork, however, sometimes rather differently ; the 
articles are fixed in their position, and the solder applied, a covering 
of loam is then put over all to exclude the air, the work thus prepared 
is then put into the fire a sufficient time to melt the solder in. 



BORINa AND TURNING. 

The best speed for boring cast iron is about 7| feet per minute. 

For drilling about 10 or 11 feet per minute is a good speed for the 
circumference of the tool. For a 1 inch drill 40 revolutions = 11 
feet per minute, other sizes in proportion. 

For turning, the proper speed for the circumference is about 15 
feet per minute. 

BRASS. 

COMPOSITIONS OF BRASS. 



Watch-makers brass 

German brass 

Yellow brass 

Speculum metal . . . . . . 

Bell metal 

Light castings and small bearings . 
Ditto a little harder . . 

Heavy castings 

Gun metal 




The addition of a little lead makes the metal more easily wrought, 
and is advantageous when the work is not intended for exposure to 
heat. 



BRASS CASTING. 

As it is often useful to engineers, especially abroad, to be able to 
cast brass, a slight description of the process may not be out of place. 

The ordinary furnace used is of very simple construction. 

After lighting the fire, put the pot intended for use bottom upwards 
over it, so as to warm gradually through. As soon as the fire is 
burned well through, put the pot into its place, resting the bottom on 
a fire brick to keep it off the bars, and filling round with lumps of 
coke to steady it; then put in the copper, either blocks cut up into 
pieces of convenient size, or if this is not to be had, sheet copper 
doubled up ; as the metal sinks down add more copper or old brass 
till the pot is nearly full of melted metal ; now add the tin, and when 
this is melted and mixed, put in a piece or two of zinc; if this besjins 
to llare add the rest of the zinc in, stir it well in, lift the pot off at 

14* 



162 BRASS CASTINGS. — WEIGHT OF ROPE. 

once, skim the rubbish off the top, and pour into the mould. If, 
however, it does not tiare up, put a little coal on to excite the fire, 
and cover over till it comes to a proper heat. As soon as the zinc 
begins to flare, add in the rest, and take the pot off the fire. If old 
brass alone is melted down no tin is required, but a small quantity of 
zinc. If part copper and part brass, add tin and zinc in proportion to 
the new copper, with a little extra zinc for the brass. 

As soon as the boxes are run, it is the usual custom to open them 
at once, and to sprinkle the castings with water from the rose of a 
watering can, this has the effect of making them softer than they 
would otherwise be ; the boxes are then emptied, and fresh moulds 
made while fresh metal is being melted. 

When the casting is completed, draw the bearer forward, and let 
the bars all drop, so that the furnace can be effectually cleared from 
the clinkers, and put the pot among the ashes to cool gradually. 

The moulding boxes may be of hard wood, well secured at the 
corners, either by dovetaiUng or by strong nails and iron corner 
plates, with guides to keep the boxes fair with one another. A few 
cross bars in the top box help to carry the sand. 

Fresh green sand, the same as used for iron founding, mixed with 
a small quantity ot coal dust, about one-twelfth part, should be sifted 
over the patterns on all sides to the thickness of about an inch, the 
box then filled up with old sand, and properly rammed up, and well 
pricked to let the air and gas escape, then remove the patterns, and 
dust over the mould with a little charcoal powder from a bag, or with 
a little flour, cover over the box again, and the mould is ready for 
pouring. 

For long articles, spindles, bars, &c., make a good airhole at the 
opposite end from where the metal is poured, incline the box slightly, 
and pour the metal at the lower end; for flat, thin and straggling ar- 
ticles it is necessary to have tw^o or more pouring holes, and to fill 
them all at the same time. 

The pots generally used are the Stourbridge clay pots, and black 
lead pots, both kinds being made of various sizes up to 60 lbs.; the 
former are less durable, hut much cheaper than the latter, they re- 
quire to be carefully hardened by gradual exposure to the fire. 

Clay pots are made of 2 parts raw Stourbridge clay to 1 of gas coke 
pulverized ; well mixed up together with water, dried gently, and 
slightly baked in a kiln. 

Black lead pots of 2 parts graphite, and 1 of fireclay, mixed with 
water, baked slightly in a kiln, but not completely until required for 
use. 

The pots are made on a wood mould, the shape and size of the in- 
side of the pot, the clay being plastered round it to the thickness 
desired. 



ROPE. 
To find the breaking Weight of an ordinary Tarred Hemp Rope, 
(Circumference, ins.)^ h- 5 = Breaking weight, tons. 
A rope should not be loaded with more than 1-3 its breaking weight. 



WEIGHT OF ROPE. WEIGHT OF CASTINGS. 



163 



To find Weight of Rope or Tarred Cordage, 

(Circumference ins.)^ X Length, ft. -r- 24 = Weight, lbs. 
Or, 

(Circumference ins.)^ -f- 4 == Weight, lbs. per fathom. 

To find Weight of Tarred Hawser or Manilla Rope, 
(Circumference ins.)^ -s- 5 = Weight, lbs. per fathom. 

To find Weight of Hawser-Laid Manilla, 
(Circumference ins.)^ -j- 6 = Weight, lbs. per fathom. 



WEIGHT. 
To find the TV eight of any Casting. 

Width in ^ ins. X Thickness in ^ ins., or vice versa, -f- 10 X 
Length, ft. = Weight, lbs. cast iron. 

For instance ; to find the weight of a casting 3| ins. X 1 J ins. X 
2 ft. 6 ins. long. 

13 X 9 -MO = 11-7 X 2-5 = 29-25 lbs. 

This rule is very useful, and can easily be remembered in the fol- 
lovs^ing form. 

Width in | ins. X Thickness in J ins. or vice versa, cut off 1 figure 
for decimal, the result is lbs. per foot of length. 

For wrought iron add l-20th to the result; for lead add 1-2 ; for 
brass add l-7th; for copper add l-5th. 

To find the Weight from the Areas. 
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. X 3 1-7 = Weight, lbs. cast iron. 
Multiplier for Cast iron 3-156 or 3 1-7. 

*' Wrought iron 3-312 or 3 1-3. 

" Lead 4-854 

" Brass 3 644 

" Copper 3-87 

Or, Area, sq. ins. X 10 = lbs. per yard for wrought iron. 

To find the Weight in cwts. 
Area, sq. ins. X Length, ft. -t- 319 = Weight, cwts. cast iron. 
For wrought iron, divide by 33.6. 



"WEIGHT OF BOILER PLATES. 



Thickness, ins. V 

Weight, lbs. per 
sq. ft. 



tV 


i 


t\ 


i 


A 


t 


T^F 


i -1 


f 


i 


2-5 


5 


7-5 


10 


12-5 


1C> 


17-5 


20 25 


30 


35 



1 

40 



For cast iron deduct l-20th. 



164 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 



To find Weight oj Boiler Plates in cwts. 

Area sq. ft. „ 

.r^ -7—; = Weight, cwts. 

JNo. conesponding to thickness 

in table below. 



Thickness. 


Divisor. 


Tbickaess. 


Divisor. ! 


: Thickness. 


Divisor. 


In. 




In. 




In 




i 


22-4 


1 


7-5 


1 


4-48 


A 


15- 


tV 


6-3 


f 


3-73 


i 


11-2 ■ 


i 


5-G 


i 


3-2 


A 


9- 


r\ 


5- 


1 


2-8 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 

Ix mechanics, circular motion is transmitted by means of wheels, 
drums, or pulleys; and accordingly as the driving and driven are of 
equal or unequal diameters, so are equal or unequal velocities pro- 
duced. Hence the principle on w^hich the following rules are founded. 

1. When time is not taken into Account, 

Rule. — Divide the greater diameter, or number of teeth, by the 
lesser diameter or number of teeth ; and the quotient is the number 
of revolutions the lesser will make, for one of the greater. 

Example. — ^How many revolutions will a pinion of 20 teeth make, 
for 1 of a wheel with 125 ? 

125 -^ 20 = 6.25 or 6^ revolutions. 

To find the number of revolutions of the last, to one of the first, 
in a train of wheels and pinions. 

Rule. — Divide the product of all the teeth in the driving by the 
product of all the teeth in the driven ; and the quotient equal the 
ratio of velocity required. 

Example 1. — Required the ratio of velocity of the last, to 1 of 
the first, in the following train of wheels and pinions; viz., pinions 
driving — the first of which contains 10 teeth, the second 15, and 
third 13. Wheels driven first, 15 teeth, second, 25, and third, 32. 

10 X 15 X 18 

-z r^ ^r^ = '225 of a revolution the wheel will make to one of the 

15 X 2o X 32 

pinion. 

Example 2. — A wheel of 42 teeth giving motion to one of 12, on 
which shaft is a pulley of 21 inches diameter driving one of 6 ; required 
the number of revolutions of the last pulley to one of the first wheel. 

42 X 21 

— = 12.25 or 121 revolutions. 

12 X 6 ^ 

Note. — '\"\Tiere increase or decrease of velocity is required to be communi- 
cated by wheel-work, it has been demonstrated that the number of teeth on each 
pinion should not be less than 1 to 6 of its wheel^ unless there be some other im- 
portant reason for a higher ratio. 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 165 



2. When Time must be regarded. 

Rule. — Multiply the diameter or number of teeth in the driver, 
by its velocity in any given time, and divide the product by the re- 
qi5ired velocity of the driven; the quotient equal the number of teeth 
or diameter of the driven, to produce the velocity required. 

Example 1. — If a wheel, containing 84 teeth, makes 20 revolu- 
tions per minute, how many must another contain, to work in contact, 
and make 60 revolutions in the same time ? 

81 X 20 -f- 60 = 28 teeth. 

Example 2. — From a shaft making 45 revolutions per minute, 
and with a pinion 9 inches diameter at the pitch line, I wish to trans- 
mit motion at 15 revolutions per minute ; what, at the pitch line, must 
be the diameter of the wheel ? 

45 X 9 -^ 15 = 27 inches. 

p Example 3. — Required the diameter of a pulley to make 16 rev- 
olutions in the same time as one of 24 inches making 36. 
24 X 36 -f- 16 = 54 inches. 

The distance between the centres and velocities of two wheels 
being given, to find their proper diameters. 

Rule. — Divide the greatest velocity by the least; the quotient is 
the ratio of diameter the wheels must bear to each other. 

Hence, divide the distance between the centres by the ratio + 1 ? 
the quotient equal the radius of the smaller wheel; and subtract the 
radius thus obtained from the distance between the centres; the re- 
mainder equal the radius of the other. 

Example. — The distance of two shafts from centre to centre is 
50 inches, and the velocity of the one 25 revolutions per minute, the 
other is to make 80 in the same time ; the proper diameters of the 
wheels at the pitch lines are required. 

80 -T- 25 = 3.2, ratio of velocity, and 50 -f- 3.2 + 1 = 11.9 the radius of 
the smaller wheel; then 50 — 11.9 = 38.1, radius of larger; their diame- 
ters are 11.9 X 2 = 23.8 and 38.1 X 2 = 76.2 inches. 

To obtain or diminish an accumulated velocity by means of wheels, 
pinions, or wheels, pinions, and pulleys, it is necessary that a propor- 
tional ratio of velocity should exist, and which is thus attained : mul- 
tiply the given and required velocities together; and the square root 
of the product is the mean or proportionate velocity. 

Example. — Let the given velocity of a wheel containing 54 teeth 
equal 16 revolutions per minute, and the given diameter of an inter- 
mediate pulley equal 25 inches, to obtain a velocity of 81 revolutions 
in a machine ; required the numlier of teeth in the intermediate 
wheel and diameter of the last pulley. 



V81 X 16 = 3G mean vclocitv. 

64 X 16 -^ 36 = 21. teeth and 25 x 36 -- 81 = 11.1 inches, diam. of pulley. 



166 CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 

To determine the proportion of wheels for screw-cutting by a 
Lathe. 

In a lathe properly adapted, screws to any degree of pitch, or 
number of threads in a given length, may be cut by means of a lead- 
ing screw of any given pitch, accompanied with change wheels and 
pinions; coarse pitches being effected generally by means of one 
wheel and one pinion with a carrier, or intermediate wheels which 
cause no variation or change of motion to take place. Hence the 
following 

RuLE.— Divide the number of threads in a given length of the 
screw which is to be cut, by the number of threads in the same 
length of the leading screw attached to the lathe ; and the quotient 
is the ratio that the wheel on the end of the screw must bear to that 
on the end of the lathe spindle. 

Example. — Let it be required to cut a screw with 5 threads in 
an inch, the leading screw being of J inch pitch, or containing 2 
threads in an inch ; what must be the ratio of wheels applied ? 

5 -r- 2 = 2.5, the ratio they must bear to each other. 
Then suppose a pinion of 40 teeth be fixed upon for the spindle, — 
40 X 2.5 = 100 teeth for the wheel on the end of the screw. 

But screws of a greater degree of fineness than about 8 threads in 
an inch are more conveniently cut by an additional wheel and pinion, 
because of the proper degree of velocity being more effectively at- 
tained ; and these, on account of revolving upon a stud, are commonly 
designated the stud-wheels, or stud-wheel diud pinion ; but the mode 
of calculation and ratio of screw are the same as in the preceding 
rule. Hence, all that is further necessary is to fix upon any 3 
wheels at pleasure, as those for the spindle and stud-wheels; then 
multiply the number of teeth in the spindle-wheel by the ratio of the 
screw, and by the number of teeth in that wheel or pinion which is 
in contact with the wheel on the end of the screw; divide the product 
by the stud- wheel in contact with the spindle-wheel; and the quotient 
is the number of teeth required in the wheel on the end of the lead- 
ing screw. 

Example.— Suppose a screw is required to be cut containing 25 
threads in an inch, and the leading screw, as before, having two 
threads in an inch, and that a wheel of 60 teeth is fixed upon for the 
end of the spindle, 20 for the pinion in contact with the screw-wheel, 
and 100 for that in contact with the wheel on the end of the spindle; 
required the number of teeth in the wheel for the end of the leading 
screw. 

60 X 12.5 X 20 

25 -^ 2 = 12.5, and = 150 teeth. 

lUU 

Or suppose the spindle and screw-wheels to be those fixed upon, 
also any one of the stud-wheels, to find the number of teeth in the 
other. 

60 X 12.5 ^^ ^ 60 X 12.5 X 20 ,^^ , 

m^Tm = '' ''^''^ ^^ 150 = ''' ^^^^^- 



CONTINUOUS CIRCULAR MOTION. 



1G7 



Table of Change Wheels for Screw-cutting ; the leading Screw 
being J inch pitch, or containing 2 threads in an inch. 





Numb, of 






Number of 






Number of 


_« 


teeth in 


_C! 




teeth in 


.S 




teeth in 


to 
























I 


o 
u 
o 

fee 




"a 


s ^ 
.si 


a (U 


o 
be 


1 




.sl 




1 

bo 






.S-^' 


^'3 


^ ^ 


— Oh 


^ «j 


C ^ 


X5 O 


"* 


^ Ci. 


«^ 


C^ 


II 


•5 *^ 
80 


^1 


Si 


2 "^ 


^6 




^2 


19 


50 


95 


.2 ^ 


^2 


1 


40 


40 


55 


20 


60 


20 


100 


li 


80 


50 


84 


90 


85 


20 


90 


19* 


80 


120 


20 


130 


14 


80 


60 


8| 


60 


70 


20 


75 


20 


60 


100 


20 


120 


li 


80 


70 


94 


90 


90 


20 


95 


20^ 


40 


90 


20 


90 


2 


80 


90 


9i 


40 


60 


20 


65 


21 


80 


129 


20 


140 


2i 


80 


90 


10 


60 


75 


20 


80 


22 


60 


110 


20 


120 


2i 


80 


100 


104 


50 


70 


20 


75 


22* 


80 


120 


20 


150 


2i 


80 


]10 


11 


60 


55 


20 


120 


22| 


80 


130 


20 


140 


3 


80 


120 


12 


90 


90 


20 


120 


233 


40 


95 


20 


100 


H 


80 


130 


123 


60 


85 


20 


90 


24 


65 


120 


20 


130 


34 


80 


140 


13 


90 


90 


20 


130 


25 


60 


100 


20 


150 


33 


80 


150 


134 


60 


90 


20 


90 


25* 


30 


85 


20 


90 


4 


40 


80 


13| 


80 


100 


20 


110 


26 


70 


130 


20 


140 


4^ 


40 


85 


14 


90 


90 


20 


140 


27 


40 


90 


20 


120 


44 


40 


90 


Hi 


60 


90 


20 


95 


271 


40 


100 


20 


110 


4J 


40 


95 


15 


90 


90 


20 


150 


28 


75 


140 


20 


150 


5 


40 


100 


16 


60 


80 


20 


120 


28* 


30 


90 


20 


95 


5* 


40 


110 


16i 


80 


100 


20 


130 


30 


70 


140 


20 


150 


6 


40 


120 


164 


80 


110 


20 


120 


32 


30 


80 


20 


120 


64 


40 


130 


17 


45 


85 


20 


90 


33 


40 


110 


20 


120 


7 


) 


140 


174 


80 


100 


20 


140 


34 


30 


85 


20 


120 


74 


40 


150 


18 


40 


60 


20 


120 


35 


60 


140 


20 


150 


8 


30 


120 


181 


80 


100 


20 


150 


36 


30 


90 


20 


120 



Table by which to determine the JVwnber of Teeth, or Pitch of 
Small Wheels, by what is commonly called the Manchester 
Principle. 



Diametral 


Circular 


Diametral 


Circular 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


Pitch. 


3 


1.047 


9 


.349 


4 


.785 


10 


.314 


5 


.628 


12 


.262 


6 


.524 


14 


.224 


7 


.449 


16 


.196 


8 


.393 


20 


.157 



168 



WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 



Example 1. — "Required the number of teeth that a wheel of 16 
inches diameter will contain of a 10 pitch. 

16 X 10 = 160 teeth, and ihe circular pitch = .314 inch. 

Example 2. — What must be the diameter of a wheel for a 9 pitch 
of 126 teeth ? 

126 -r- 9 = 14 inches diameter, circular pitch .349 inch. 

Note. — The pitch is reckoned on the diameter of the wheel instead of the cir- 
cumference, and designated wheels of 8 pitch, 12 pitch, &c. 



Strength of the Teeth of Cast Iron Wheels at 


a given Velocity. 


Pitch 
of teeth 


Thickness 
of teeth 


Breadth 
of teeth 


Strength of teeth 


in horse-power at 


3 feet per 


4 feet per 


6 feet per 


8 feet per 


in inches. 


in inches. 


in inches. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


second. 


3.99 


1.9 


7.6 


20.57 


27.43 


41.14 


54.85 


3.78 


1.8 


7.2 


17.49 


23.32 


34.98 


46.64 


3.57 


a.7 


6.8 


14.73 


19.65 


29.46 


39.28 


3.36 


1.6 


6.4 


12.28 


16..38 


24.56 


3274 


3.15 


1.5 


6. 


10.12 


13..50 


20.24 


26.98 


2.94 


1.4 


5.6 


8.22 


10.97 


16.44 


21.92 


2.73 


1.3 


5.2 


6.58 


8.78 


13.16 


17.54 


2.52 


1.2 


4.8 


5.18 


6,91 


10.36 


13.81 


2 31 


1.1 


4.4 


3.99 


5.32 


7.98 


10.64 


2.1 


1.0 


4. 


3.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 


1.89 


.9 


3.6 


2 18 


2.91 


4.36 


5.81 


1.68 


.8 


3.2 


1.53 


2.04 


3.06 


3.08 


1.47 


.7 


2.8 


1027 


1.37 


2.04 


2.72 


1.26 


.6 


2.4 


.64 


.86 


1.38 


1.84 


1.05 


.5 


2. 


.375 


.50 


.75 


1.00 



WHEELS AND GUDGEONS. 

To find size of Teeth necessary to transmit a given Horse Power. 
(Tredgold.) 
Horse power X 240 



Diameter of wheel, ft. X Revs, per min. 

Strength 



v/. 



Strength 



Pitch, ins. 



= Strength of tooth. 



, = Breadth, ins. 



Breadth, ins. * "^"' *""' (Pitch, ins.)^ ' 

The above rule will be found very suitable for a speed of circum- 
ference of about 240 feet per minute. For speeds above, add to 240 
half the difference, for speeds below, deduct half the difference, be- 
tween 240 and the actual speed, the result being a suitable multiplier. 

For instance ; at 300 ft. per minute, 60 being the difference, 240 + 
30 = 270 multiplier. 

At 160 ft. per minute, 80 being the difference, 240 — 40 = 200 
multiplier. 



WATER. 



169 



The reason being, that with higher speeds, the friction, wear, and 
liability to shocks is increased, at lower speeds decreased, and the 
teeth may advantageously be proportioned accordingly. 

To find the Horse Power that any Wheel will transmit. 
(Pitch, ins.)2 X Breadth, ins. X Diameter h. X Revs, per minute 

Appropriate No. according to speed, as above. 
= Horse Power. 

To find the multiplying number for any Wheel, 
(Pitch, ins.)2 X Breadth, ins. X Diameter ft. X Revs, per minute 

Horse Power 
= Multiplying No. as above. 

To find the size of Teeth to carry a given load in lbs. 
Load, lbs. -r- 1120 = Breaking strength of teeth. 
Load, lbs. -f- 280 = Strength for very low speeds, and for steady 

work; being 4 times the breaking strength. 
Load, lbs. -f- 140 = Strength for ordinary purposes of machinery ; 

being 8 times the breaking strength. 
Load, lbs. -j- 100 = Strength for high speeds, and irregular work ; 
or when the teeth are exposed to shocks. 
As before, 
Strength 



(Pitch, ins.)2 ' 



Breadth, ins. 



i/ Strength _.^ , . 

V ^ r.t:^- — = Pitch, ins. 

Breadth, ins. 



WATER. 

To find the quantity of Water that will be discharged through an 
orifice, or pipe, in the side or bottom of a Vessel. 

Areaoforifice.sq.in. xP°- <:on-esP°"ding to height of surface 

^ ( above oriiice, as per table 

= Cubic feet discharged per minute. 



Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Height of 

Surface above 

Orifice. 


Multiplier. 


Ft. 

1 


2-25 


Ft. 
18 


9-5 


Ft. 
40 


14-2 


2 


3-2 


20 


10- 


45 


151 


4 


4-5 


22 


10-5 


50 


16- 


6 


5-44 


24 


11- 


60 


17-4 


8 


6-4 


26 


11-5 


70 


18-8 


10 


7 1 


28 


12- 


80 


20-1 


12 


7-8 


30 


12-3 


90 


21-3 


14 


8-4 


32 


12-7 


100 


22-5 


16 


9- 


35 


13-3 







15 



170 WATER. 

To find the size of hole necessary to discharge a given quantity of 
Water under a given head. 

Cubic ft. water discharged . ^ .^ 

"tCt Y- — ~. — , . , ^ , , , = Area of orifice, sq. in. 

ISO. corresponding to height, as per table ^ 

To find the height necessary to discharge a given quantity through 
a given orifice. 

Cubic ft. water discharged 

— r TTt : — r = No. corresp. to height, as per table. 

Area orince, sq. inches. ^ & ' r 

The velocity of Water issuing from an orifice in the side or lottom 
of a vessel being ascertained to be asfolloivs : 

-v^Heigtit ft. surface above orifice X 5-4 = i ^'^locity of water, ft. 
* \ per second. 

-^Height ft. X Area orifice, ft. X 324 = J C""<= \1nute"'°^'^ ''^' 

vHeight ft. X Area orifice, ins. X 2-2= Do. Do. 

It may be observed, that the above rules represent the actual 
quantities that will be delivered through a hole cut in the plate ; if a 
short pipe be attached, the quantity will be increased, the greatest 
delivery with a straig-ht pipe being attained with a length equal to 4 
diameters, and being 1-3 more than the delivery through the plain 
hole ; the quantity gradually decreasing as the length of pipe is in- 
creased, till, with a length equal to 60 diameters the discharge again 
equals the discharge through the plain orifice. If a taper pipe be 
attached the delivery will be still greater, being IJ times the deliv- 
ery through the plain orifice ; and it is probable that if a pipe with 
curved decreasing taper were to be tried, the delivery through it 
would be equal to the theoretical discharge, which is about 1-65 the 
actual discharge through a plain hole. 

To find the quantity of Water that will run through any orifice, 
the top of which is level with the surface ofivater as over a sluice 
or dam. 



4 /Height^ ft. from w^ater surface to hot- } ^ Area of water ) ^ 216 
^ torn of orifice or top of dam J passage, sq. ft. j . 

= Cub. ft. discharged per minute* 

Or, 
Two-thirds Area of water passage, sq. ins, X No. corresponding to 

height as per table, = Cub. ft. discharged per minute. 

To find the tirne in which a Vessel will empty itself through a 
given orifice. 



-•v^Height ft. surface above orifice X Area water surface^ sq. ins. 

Area orifice, sq. in. X 37 
= Time required^ seconds. 

The above rules are founded on Bank's experiments. 



MECHANICAL TABLES 



FOR THE USE OF 



OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWEIGHTS, 



AND 



ENGINEERS, 



172 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



MECHANICAL TABLES 

FOR THE USE OF OPERATIVE SMITHS, MILLWRIGHTS, AND 
ENGINEERS. 

The following Tables, originally dedicated to * the A^ational Asso- 
ciation of the Forgers of Iron Work,^ England, by James Fo- 
DE]?f, will be found extremely useful to S?7iiths, generally, and 
are accompanied by Practical Examples. — Templetojv. 
DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ. 
Ft. In. 


E 
F 


iam. 
. In. 


Circ. 
'Ft. In. 


D 


iam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


In- 


Ft 


. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In 


Ft. In. 







3^ 


54 




H 





10 


1 2 


n 




21 


3 


^^ 


1 61 


4 Hi 


H 





34 


5| 




5| 






' 






24 


3 


94 


1 7 


4 HI 


U 





3i 


5| 




6 





m 


2 


u 




^ 


3 


9i 






If 





H 


5i 




61 





iH 


2 


8^ 




2| 


3 


lOd 


1 71 


5 


14 





41 


6 




6| 





m 


2 


84 




25 


3 


lOf 


1 7^ 


5 0| 







5 











10^ 


2 


Si 




3 


3 


11 


1 n 


5 05 


jl 





5| 


6| 




^ 





10| 


2 


n 










1 7^ 


5 li 


'^ 





H 


H 




^ 





10| 


2 


9| 




3i 


3 114 


1 7| 


5 1| 





H 


6| 




8 





m 


2 


10^ 




H 


3 


115 


1 7| 


5 2 








64 




8f 





11 


2 


104 




31 


4 


Oi 


A 7J 


5 2| 


21 





6| 


6| 




8| 












34 


4 


0| 


1 8 


5 21 


2i 





7 


6| 




^h 





11^ 


2 


105 




3| 


4 


1 






2| 





7f 


H 




H 





iH 


2 


Hi 




S| 


4 


ll 


1 8^ 


5 8J 


24 





n 


7 




^ 





iif 


2 


llf 




3^ 


4 


n 


1 8i 


5 31 


^ 





Sk 











114 


3 







4 


4 


H 


1 8| 


5 4 


2| 





8| 


7^ 




lOf 





ii| 


3 


04 










1 84 


5 4f 


2i 





9 


7^ 




10| 





ii| 


3 


H 




4J 


4 


2f 


1 8| 


5 4i 


3 





H 


7| 




Uk 





iH 


3 


U 




4i 


4 


3 


1 8| 


5 5| 








'^i 




114 


1 





3 


n 




4§ 


4 


3f 


1 81 


5 5J 


3^ 





91 


7|- 




llj 












44 


4 


31 


1 9 


5 5J 


H 





m 


71 


2 


Oi 




0| 


3 


2 




4| 


4 


U 






31 





104 


7i 


2 


0| 




^k 


3 


2| 




4| 


4 


44 


1 9J 


5 6J 


3i 





10^ 


8 




1^ 




Of 


3 


2^^ 




45 


4 


5 


1 H 


5 6| 


3| 





Hi 










04 


3 


H 




5 


4 


5| 


1 9§ 


5 7^ 


31 





HI 


8^ 


2 


14 




Of 


3 


3§ 










1 94 


5 74 


35 




0^ 


H 


2 


n 




0| 


3 


4 




•5J 


4 


51 


1 9| 


5 8 


4 




04 


8| 


2 


H 




Oi 


3 


4f 




5i 


4 


6| 


1 9| 


5 8| 








84 


2 


^ 




1 


3 


4| 




51 


4 


64 


1 9J 


5 81 


4i 




Oi 


81 


2 


3 












54 


4 


6J 


1 10 


5 9 


4i 




H 


8| 


2 


31 




ll 


3 


5| 




5| 


4 


7| 






4f 


1 


i| 


85 


2 


3J 




li 


3 


5| 




51 


4 


n 


1 loi 


5 94 


44 




2^ 


9 


2 


4i 


1 


If 


3 


6 




55 


4 


SI 


1 10| 


5 9i 


4f 




24 








1 


14 


3 


6| 




6 


4 


84 


1 lOf 


5 lOi 


41 




2i 


9^ 


2 


4| 




If 


3 


6| 










1 104 


5 lOf 


^ 




3i 


9i 


2 


5 




ll 


3 


7^ 




6^ 


4 


8i 


1 ibf 


5 11' 


5 




3| 


9| 


2 


5| 




li 


3 


7| 




6i 


4 


9i 


1 io| 


5 llf 








94 


2 


5| 




2 


3 


7| 




6f 


4 


9| 


1 10§ 


5 111 


5| 




4 


9| 


2 


6^ 












64 


4 


10 


1 11 


6 Oi 


H 




4| 


91 


2 


6f 




n 


3 


8| 




6| 


4 


lOf 






5| 




4^ 


9i 


2 


7 


L 


H 


3 


8| 


1_ 


6| 


4 


105 


1 iH 


6 0| 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 173 



Diam. 


Circ. 


1 Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


iDiam.l Circ. JDiam. 


Circ. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


la. 


Ft 


. In. 


Ft. 


in. 


F 


. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft 


. In.! Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft In. 


1 lU 


6 


1 


|2 


4* 


7 


61 


2 


lOf 


8 


11* 


3 


4 


10 


H 


3 9A 


11 10* 


1 Uf 


^ 


ii;2 


5 


7 


7 


2 


m 


9 


Of 










3 9| 


11 11! 


1 Hi 


6 


il 








2 


lOf 


9 


of 


3 


4* 


10 


6 


3 9| 


11 11| 


1 llf 


6 


2*^2 


5i 

54 


7 


74 


2 


10| 


9 


1* 


3 


H 


10 


6| 


3 9J 


12 


1 111 


6 


2|j2 


7 


7| 


2 


10* 


9 


lis 


4| 


10 


61 


3 10 


12 OJ 


1 llj 


6 


3 2 


5| 
5d 


7 


H 


2 


11 


9 


1*3 


H 


10 


u 






2 O' 


6 


S|2 


7 


4 








'3 


^ 


10 


n 


3 10* 


12 01 
12 1! 






(2 


5f 


7 


9^ 


2 


11* 


9 


2i3 


4 


10 


8 


3 10^ 


2 Oi 


6 


3|2 


5| 


7 


9| 


2 


111 


9 


2*3 


4* 


10 


8| 


3 lOf 


12 If 


2 Oi 


6 


4*2 


? 


7 


9| 


2 


llf 


9 


3 3 


6 


10 


84 


3 10^ 


12 2 


2 Of 


6 


4^2 


7 


10* 


2 


112 


9 


sh 








3 lOf 


12 2| 
12 2| 


2 Oi 


6 


5|2 








2 


llf 


9 


3*3 
4^,3 


H 


10 


91 


3 10| 


2 Of 


6 


21 


7 


lOf 


2 


111 


9 


4 


10 


94 


3 10|- 


12 34 


2 0| 


6 


5|!2 


7 


11' 


2 


^1* 


9 


4f3 


5| 


10 


9* 


3 11 


12 3| 


2 OJ 


6 


6*2 


6f 


7 


llf 


3 


0' 


9 


5 3 


H 


10 


10| 






2 1 


6 


4 


2 


64 


7 


111 








3 


5f 


10 


10| 


3 11* 


12 4 








2 


6S 


8 


0* 


3 


0* 


9 


5|3 

5*3 


5| 


10 


11* 


3 11^ 


12 4| 


2 H 


6 


61 


2 


4 


8 


3 


Oi 


9 


5* 


10 


11^ 


3 llf 


12 4| 


2 li 


6 


U 


2 


n 


8 


H 


3 


» 


9 


6^3 


6 


10 


11* 


3 114 


12 ^ 
12 54 


2 If 


6 


7f2 


7' 


8 


If 


3 


o| 


9 


6f 








3 llf 


2 1^ 


6 


8 








3 


Of 


9 


7 3 


6* 


11 


Oi 


3 111 


12 6 


2 If 


6 


8i2 


7i 


8 


i| 


3 


0| 


9 


7|3 


el 


11 


Of 


3 11* 


12 6| 


2 1| 


6 


8*2 


7^ 


8 


2* 


3 


0* 


9 


n 


3 


6f 
6^ 


11 


1* 


4 


12 61 


2 If 


6 


H 


2 


7| 


8 


2^ 


3 


1' 


9 


8* 


3 


11 


12 






2 2' 


6 


H 


2 


7d 


8 


2* 










3 


6f 


u 


ll 


4 01 


12 7A 








2 


7| 


8 


3| 


3 


1* 


9 


8f 


3 


6| 


11 


4 0^ 


12 7 J 


2 21 


6 


10 


2 


7| 


8 


3| 


3 


1^ 


9 


9 


3 


6* 


11 


2| 


4 Of 12 7| 
4 0^112 8; 


2 2^ 


6 


lOf 


2 


^1 


8 


4* 


3 


If 


9 


H 


3 


7' 


11 


3 


2 2| 


6 lOi 


2 


8 


8 


H 


3 


li 


9 


4 










4 Of 112 8i 


2 2J 


6 


lU 










3 


If 


9 


10* 


3 


"^8 


H 


31 


4 0||12 9.^ 


2 25 


6 


lis 


2 


8* 


8 


4* 


3 


ll 


9 


loi 


3 


^4 


H 


4 0112 95 r 


2 2| 


7 





2 


8i 


8 


5i 


3 


1* 


9 


10* 
llf 


3 


7| 


11 


H 


4 1 


12 91 


2 21 


7 


Of 


2 


8| 


8 


5f 


3 


2' 


9 


3 


u 


H 


4| 






2 3^ 


7 


0| 


2 


8^ 


8 


6 










3 


7| 


11 


5 


4 1*12 lOi 








2 


8f 


8 


64 


3 


2* 


9 ml 


3 


7^ 


11 


5| 


4 11112 lOj 


2 3J 


7 


l* 


2 


8| 


8 


6* 


3 


2i 


10 


a 


3 


n 


11 


6:i 


4 If 12 11 
4 14|12 114 


2 31 


7 


2 


8| 


8 


7| 


3 


2f 
2i 


10 


3 


s' 


11 


6* 


2 3| 


7 


2 


2 


9 


8 


7| 


3 


10 


3 










4 If 12 111 
4 I3!l3 Oi 
4 l|l3 0| 


2 3| 


7 


2| 










3 


s 


10 


3 


H 


11 


64 


2 3| 
2 3| 


7 


2^ 


2 


9* 


8 


8 


3 


10 


l| 





8| 


11 


7 


7 


3^ 


2 


8 


81 


3 


2* 


10 


21 


3 




11 


7J 


4 2 


13 1 


2 3| 


7 


2 




8 


3 


3' 


10 


3 


8| 


11 


7| 






2.4' 


7 


H 


2 


8 


94 










3 


84 


11 


8| 


4 2*13 l.J 








2 


n 


8 


9S 


3 


3i|l0 


4 


3 


8| 


11 


4 2i'l3 l| 


2 4i 


7 


H 


2 
2 


8 


10' 


3 


<|io 


3 


8* 


11 


4 2^13 2: 


2 4^ 


7 


4i 


n 


8 


10| 
10^ 


3 


3|l0 


3| 


3 


9 


11 


H 


4 24 13 2* 


2 4| 
2 4j 


7 


51 


2 


10 


8 


3 


3j'l0 


4 










4 2J13 3 


7 


H 










3 


3|l0 


4i 


3 


9* 


11 


n 


4 2il3 3| 


2 44 


7 


s* 


2 


101 


8 


11* 
11^ 


3 


3|l0 


4? 


3 


HM 


10^ 


4 21 13 3! 


2 41 


7 


6l 


!2 


104 


8 


3 


3*10 


H 


3 


9^1 11 


104 


4 8 113 4v 



15* 



174 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 




20 5| 

20 51 

20 6i 

6jl20 6h 

iti20 7'^ 

61 1 20 7f 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 175 



Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam. Circ. 


Diaiti. 


Circ. 


D 


iam.l Circ. 


Diam.l Circ. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft 


. In. Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft 


. In. 'Ft. 


In. 


Fl 


. In. 'Ft. In. 


6 7 


20 


H 


7 


oi 


22 


If 


7 61 


2*3 


^8 


7 


11125 


0| 


8 


5426 6 








7 


Of 


22 


l| 


7 6| 


23 


74 


7 


11125 


11 


8 


5| 26 6| 


6 7i 


20 


8h 


7 


04 


22 


24 


7 6| 


23 


7J 


8 


25 


H 


8 


5^26 61 


6 Vl 


20 


^i 


7 


H 


22 


2| 


7 6^123 


4 








8 


5f 26 74 


6 7| 


20 


n 


7 


1 


22 


3 


7 6f|23 


^ 


8 


0125 


11 


8 


5i26 74 


6 7^ 


20. 


~n 










7 6:il23 


9' 


8 


0425 


2| 


8 


5126' 8 


6 7f|20 


wi 


7 


1* 


22 


S| 


7 b'l!23 


9| 


8 


0125 


2| 


8 


6^26 8| 


6 7^ 


20 


io«i 


7 


1422 


H 


7 7 ' 


23 


^8 


8 


0^25 


H 






6 7J 


20 


101 


7 


If 22 


41 
44 








8 


0|;25 


4 


8 


6126 8| 


6 8 


20 


114 


7 


1^22 


7 71 


23 


104 


8 


0|i25 


H 


8 


64 26 9^ 








7 


1J22 
l| 22 


5 


7 7| 


23 


lOf 


8 


0125 


44 


8 


6|;26 9| 


6 8^ 


20 


nf 


7 


H 


7 71 


23 


11' 


■8 


1' 


25 


4f 


8 


6^ 26 10 


6 84 


21 


0' 


7 


]1'22 


5:| 


7 7d 


23 


iif 










8 


6f'26 lOf 


6 8J 
6 8l 


21 


oi 


7 


2 


22 


H 


7 7f 


23 


111 


8 


11 


25 


H 


S 


6| 26 10| 


21 


H 










7 7:i 


24 


01 


8 
8 


14 


25 


H 


8 


6126 lU 


6 8f 


21 


A 


7 


21 


22 


64 


7 71 


24 


Of 


If 
14 


25 


51 


8 


7'' 


26 llj 


6 8| 


21 


^ 


7 


24 


22 


H 


7 8' 


24 


1 


8 


25 


64 








6 81 
6 9' 


21 


2 


7 


^ 


22 


7? 








8 


if 
1| 


25 


H 


8 


71126 111 

74;27 0,; 


21 


2| 


7 


4 


22 


n 


7 81 


24 


If 


8 


25 


7 


8 








7 


2# 


22 


84 


7 84 


24 


ll 


8 


^* 


25 


7| 

n 


8 


7|:27 Oi 


6 9i 


21 


2| 


7 


4 


22 


7 8| 


24 


21 


8 


25 


8 


7^'27 1.- 


6 9I 


21 


H 


7 


4 


22 


81 


7 8.i 


24 










8 


7f 27 l| 


6 9| 


21 


H 


7 


s' 


22 


H 


7 8f 


24 


4 


8 


21 


25 


Si 


8 


71:27 11 
7J27 2r. 


6 9^ 


21 


4 










7 8i 


24 


4 


8 


24 


25 


8f 


8 


6 9f 


21 


^ 


7 


% 


22 


n 


7 81 


24 


4 


8 


^ 


25 


9 


8 


8 27 2^: 


6 9| 


21 


4 


7 


3.1 


22 


10 


7 9 


24 


H 


8 


2^ 


25 


9| 






6 9J 
6 10 


21 


H 


7 


St, 


22 


lOJ 

101 








8 


2| 


25 


9| 


8 


8127 3 


21 


4 


7 


3| 


22 


7 91 


24 


44 


8 


2| 


25 


101 

lol 


8 


84i27 3i 








7 


S| 


22 


113 


7 4 


24 


41 
54 


8 


^ 


25 


8 


8|'27 Si 
SJ27 4 


6 lOi 
6 KW 


21 


6 


7 


3| 


22 


^H 


7 9| 


24 


8 


3' 


25 


11 


8 


21 


H 


7 


2| 


23 





7 9.i 


24 


H 










8 


8|27 44 


6 10| 


21 


4 


7 


4' 


23 


C| 


7 9| 


24 


4 


8 


Si 


25 


11| 


8 


8:i 


27 5 


6 lOj 


21 


71 










7 9| 


24 


u 


8 


34 


25 


111 


8 


SJ 


27 5| 


6 10|21 


u 


7 


4* 


23 


0| 


7 91 


24 


61 


8 


3f 


26 


0* 


8 


9 


27 5| 


6 10| 21 


71 


7 


44 


23 


1* 


7 10 


24 


74 


8 


34 


26 


04 








6 10121 
6 11' 21 


H 


7 


^ 

4'i 


23 


If 








S 


3| 


26 


01 
l|: 


8 


H 


27 64 


SI 


7 


23 


2 


7 101 


24 


H 


8 


04 


26 


8 


n 


27 64 






7 


4f 
4fi 


23 


2f 


7 10:1 


24 


s' 


8 


sf 


26 


n\ 


8 


91 


27 7" 


6 1U21 
6 ll|,21 


H 


7 


23 


4 


7 10| 
7 10.5 


24 


81 


8 


4 


26 


H 


8 


9^ 


27 71 


H 


7 


^* 


23 


■3 


24 










8 


H 


27 71 


6 11| 


21 


n 


7 


5 


23 


7 10| 
7 103 


24 


^1 


8 


4i 


26 


H 


8 


9:1 


27 84 


6 llj 


21 


io| 










24 


10' 


8 


^ 


26 


-i\ 


S 


H 


27 sl 


6 lU 


21 


lOf 


7 


^ 


23 


31 

4| 


7 101 


24 


8 


t 


26 


34 


8 


10 ,27 9 


6 111 


21 


11 


7 


H 


23 


7 11' 


24 


10| 


8 


26 


s| 




1 

1 ■• 


6 111 


21 


114 


7 


5| 
^1 


23 


4^ 






8 


4| 


26 


4^ 


10127 91 


7 0' 


21 


llj 


7 


23 


a 


7 111 


24 


103 


8 


26 


4!i^ 


8 


104 27 9'i 








7 


5I 


23 


7 111 


24 




8 


^ 


26 


4|' 


8 


10^27 101 
10.^27 lO.i 


7 0^ 
7 i)l 


22 


0.1 


7 


23 


5^ 


7 lit} 


24 


8 


5" 


26 


4\ 


8 


22 


n 


7 


5123 


6.i 


7 11:^ 


25 













8 


10|27 101 
10:] 27 11 J 


7 Of 


22 


1 


7 


(> 23 


<ij 


7 11^ 


25 


n 


8 


5126 


5t^s 



176 DIAMETESS A2sD CIECU.MFEREXCES OF CIRCLES. 



Diam. Cue. 


Dia. C 


re. 


Diam. C 


re. 


Diam.' Ciic. 


Di 


am. ! Circ. 


Ft. In. Ft. 


In. 


F. I. Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. Ft. 


In 


Ft. In. Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. Ft. In. 


S 10^27 


Ill 


9 4|29 


5 


9 10 80 


lOf 


10 34 32. 


H 


10 


9f 33 9| 


8 11 2S 


H 


9 4.<^29 


3i 






10 3|32 


4 


10 


H 


33 10 


i 




9 4|29 


H 


9 10^30 
9 1U4 30 


11 


10 3|32 


4| 


10 


H 


33 10| 


8 1U23 


Oh 


9 4.^ 29 


H 


llf 


10 3f 32 


H 


10 


9% 


33 10: 


8 11^23 


H 


9 4|29 


64 


9 10130 


ll| 


10 4 32 


oj 


10 


9f 


33 11. 
33 ll^i 


8 11|2S 


14 


9 5 29 


7 


9 10.^31 


Oi 


1 




10 


9^ 


8 n^2S 


If 






9 lOf 31 


Of 


10 4f 32 


H 


10 


9^ 


34 


8 llf 


28 


2 


9 5^29 


7g 


9 10^31 


1 


10 4^32 


4 


10 


10' 


34 Of 


8 114 


2S 


2A- 


9 5i29 


74 


9 10|31 


If 


10 4f 32 


4 








8 llj 


23 


H 


9 5f 29 


i 


9 11 31 


U 


10 4i32 


7 


10 


10^34 01 


9 


28 


H 


9 5^29 






10 4f 32 


'h 


10 


lOi 34 U 








9 .5|29 




9 lUSl 


2i 


10 44 12 


7^ 


10 


10|34 li 


9 Oi 


23 


H 


9 5|29 


H 


9 11^31 


2f 


10 4f 32 


H 


10 


10.^34 1| 


9 Oi 


23 


4 


9 5^29 


9| 


9 llf 31 


3 


10 5''|32 


H 


10 


10| 
10^ 


34 2| 


9 Of 


23 


4 


9 6 29 


10* 


9 11^31 


3f 


i 




10 


34 2^ 


9 0.^ 


23 


4 


1 




9 llf 31 


3| 


10 5^32 


9 


10 


1'4 


34 8^ 
34 3| 


9 Of 


23 


5i 


9 6^29 


10.^ 


9 111 31 


4f 


10 54 32 


n 


10 


11 


9 042s 


H 


9 6^29 


l^t 


9 11^31 


4 


10 5132 








9 OX 


23 


6 


9 6|29 


111 


i 




10 5J32 


io| 


10 


11* 


34 3j. 
34 4,: 


9 1 


28 


6f 


9 6h 29 


llf 


10 |31 


4f 


10 5|32 


lOf 


10 


Hi 








9 61-30 





10 0^31 


5|- 


'10 5| 32 


11 


10 


llf 


34 4, 


9 H 


23 


61 


9 6| 30 


Oh 


10 0131 


5|il0 5132 


I'l 


10 


111 


34 5 


9 l| 


23 


H 


9 6t 30 


H 


10 Of 31 


6^!l0 6 ;32 


111 


10 


llf 


34 5i 


9 1| 


23 


4 


9 r 30 


i| 


10 O-i 31 


el 1 




10 


111 


34 5f 


9 li 


23 


8 


j. 




10 Of 31 


6f 10 6f 33 


0^ 


10 


lit 


34 6i 


9 If 


23 


H 


9 7^30 


If 


10 0^31 


7+ 10 6^33 


4 


11 


0'^ 


34 6f 


9 l| 


23 


s| 


9 7i30 


2 


10 0|31 


7|!l0 6f 33 


1 








^ li 


23 


9^9 71-30 


n 


10 1 j31 


8f|l0 6^33 


If 


11 


H 


34 7 


9 2 


28 


9i 9 7j 30 


n 


-t 




10 6f33 


li 


11 


o| 


34 7| 






19 74 30 


H 


10 U31 


Sh 


10 6^33 


H 


11 


<t 


34 7i 


9 2i 


23 


9|9 7|30 


3f 


10 1^31 


H 


10 6f 33 


2i 


11 


o| 


34 8i 


9 24 


23 


10^9 7^30 


4 


10 If 31 


H 


10 7 33 


2f 


11 


^f 


34 S^ 


9 2| 


23 


10|9 8"" 30 


4| 


10 1.431 


9J 


! 




11 


o| 


34 9 


9 2^ 


23 


11*1 1 




10 11^31 


10 


10 7^33 


Sf 


11 


01 


34 9| 
34 91 


9 2^ 


23 


1U|9 8^30 


4| 


10 l|31 


lOfllO 74 33 
10^! 10 7|33 


34 


11 


r 


9 2| 


2S 


llf 


9 Si 30 


H 


10 If 31 


^ 








^ ^^ 


29 


o| 


9 Sf 30 
9 8^30 


oi 


10 2 31 


111 


10 7^33 


H 


11 


If 


34 10^ 


9 3 


29 


Of 


6 


1 




10 74 33 




11 


li 


34 10^ 








9 S}30 


n 


10 2f 31 


llf 


10 7|33 


51 


11 


If 


34 11 


9 31 


29 


1 


9 Si 30 


4 


10 2^32 


0' 


10 7f 33 


5f 


11 


u 


34 llf 


9 3+ 


29 


n 


9 S| 30 


H 


10 2f 32 


Of 


10 S 33 


H 


11 


n 


34 11| 


9 3| 


29 


n 


9 9 ,30 


7^ 


10 2^32 


0| 


1 




11 


1^ 35 0^ 


9 3| 


29 


4 


j 




10 2f 32 


If 


10 8^33 


6i 


11 


If 35 oj 


9 34 


29 


-f 


9 9^30 


H 


10 2| 82 


H 


10 Sj 33 


*4 


11 


2 (35 0| 


9 3| 


29 


3 


9 9130 


si 


10 2^-32 


2 


10 8f 33 




1 


^ H 


29 


n 


9 9f 30 


^A 


10 3^ 32 


2f 


10 8^.33 


"t 


11 


2f 35 li 


Q 4 


29 


4 


9 9^30 


9-k 


1 




10 84 33 


s 


11 


2i 35 1^ 








9 9f 30 


94 


10 3|32 
10 3^32 


2| 


10 Sj33 


g| 


11 


2f35 2^ 
2^35 2ii 


F 44 


29 


^ 


9 9i30 


H 


3^ 


10 54.33 


SX 


11 


9 41 


29 


4f 


9 9f 30 


m 


10 8|32 


31 


10 9" 33 


&i 


11 


2|35 2^ 



DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 



177 



Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Circum. 


Diam. 


Oircum. 


Diam. 


Circum 


Ft In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. 


In. 


Ft. In. 


11 2| 


35 


H 


'-^m 


.51 


36 


Oi 




8| 


36 


10^ 


11 


Ill 


37 7h 


11 2§ 


35 


H 




^i 


36 


H 




8i 


36 


io| 


11 


111 


37 n 


11 3 


35 


4 




6 


36 


H 




9' 


36 


10| 


12 


0' 


37 S| 


11 S| 


35 


44 




^ 


36 


H 




H 


36 


114 


12 


OJ 


37 8| 


11 Bi 


35 


4 




4 


36 


4 


u 


H 


36 


114 


12 


0^ 


37 9^ 


11 8| 


35 


H 




H 


36 


H 




9- 


37 


0^ 

04 


12 


Of 


37 9| 


11 Bt 


35 


5f 




4 


36 


3 




H 


37 


12 


o| 


37 91 


11 3| 


35 


6 




6| 


36 


H 




n 


37 


o| 


12 


n 


37 10^ 


11 3t 


35 


6f 




6i 


36 


H 




4 


37 


H 


12 


o| 


37 lOf 


11 3J 


35 


6| 




6| 


36 


H 




9j 


37 


H 


12 


H 


37 111 


11 4 


35 


u 




7 


36 


4f 




10 


37 


2 


12 


1 


37 111 


11 4i 


35 


H 




7* 


36 


5 




lOi 


37 


2i 


12 


ii 


37 111 


11 44 


35 


8 




7| 


36 


5| 




104 


37 


21 


12 


H 


38 Oi 


11 4| 


35 


8| 




7| 


36 




lOf 


37 


H 


12 


If 


38 Of 


11 4^ 


35 


81 




'^h 


36 


4 




104 


37 


H 


12 


li 


38 1 


11 4i 


35 


9^ 




n 


36 


H 




lOf 


37 


4 


12 


If 


38 If 


11 41 


35 


H 




71 


36 


7 




10.^ 


37 


4| 


12 


1| 


38 1- 


11 4| 


35 


10 




7J 


36 


7| 




101 


37 


4.^ 


12 


H 


38 2: 


11 5 


35 


10| 




8^ 


36 


7| 




1] 


37 


H 


12 


2' 


38 2y 


11 5i 


35 


10| 




8^ 


36 


H 




111 


37 


H 


12 


2J 


38 3 


11 H 


35 


lU 

111 




83 


36 


H 




Hi 


37 


6 


12 


H 


38 3| 


11 5| 


35 




8| 


36 


9 




11§ 


37 


4 


12 


2| 


38 3^ 


11 54 


35 


lU 

o| 




8^ 


36 


9| 




11?^ 


37 


12 


2I 


38 d 


11 5| 


36 




H 


36 


4 




llf 


37 


H 


12 


Jf 


38 4| 



If a Hoop of larger diameter than 12 feet is required, double some number. 

Observations on Tables relating to the Diameters and 
Circumferences of Circles. 

I do not intend to enter into any labored argument to prove the general 
utility of these Tables, as their simplicity and clearness are sufficient to 
stamp their value to the artist and mechanic. It will be clearly perceived, 
on inspection, that the Table commences with as small a diameter as is gen- 
erally used in hoops and rings, viz. one inch, and increases by the regular 
gradation of one-eighth of an inch, to upwards of twelve feet j and in the 
column marked Circumference, against each Diameter stand the respective 
circumferences : hence all that is necessary on inspecting these Tables is to 
enter into them with any proposed diameter or circumference, and an answer 
to the inquiry is immediately obtained. 

Example. — Required the circumference of a circle, the diameter being 8 
feet 7 7-8 inches ? 

In the column of circumferences, opposite the given diameter, stands 27 
feet 2i inches, the circumference required. 

But it will be necessary to observe, that in the formation oi hoops j\nd 
rings a contraction of the metal takes place. Now, the just allowance for 
this contraction is the exact thickness of the metal, which nmst be added to 
tlie diameter. 

Ex. — In making a hoop whose diameter inside is 6 feet 9 l-H inches, the 
thickness of the iron being ^ inch, this h inch must be added to the given 
diameter, which will make it G feet 9 5-8 inches} this will allow 1 5-«S nich 



178 DIAMETERS AND CIRCUMFERENCES OF CIRCLES. 

for the contraction in bending in a hoo^ of the above diameter, pving the 
circumference or length of iron required for the hoop, 21 feet 4 3-8 inches. 

The foregoing example appertains to the formation of hoops or iron bent 
on the flat; but in the formation of rings or iron bent^^n the edge, the same 
rule must also be followed, only taking care to add the breadth instead of 
the thickness. As for example : 

To make a ring whose inside diameter is 8 feet 2^- inches, the breadth of 
the iron being 2^ inches 5 by adding the 2^ inches to the given diameter, 
will increase it to 8 feet 4| inches 5 opposite to this diameter in the column 
of circumferences stands 26 feet 4^ inches, being the length of iron necessary 
for the ring. 

The foregoing observations relate more particularly to plain hoops and 
rings 5 but as respects the hoops that are on the wheels of railway carriages, 
a difference must be observed, which is as follows : These hoops having 
a flange projecting on the one edge of the surface, it will be necessary, in 
addition to the thickness of the metal, to add two-thirds of the thickness of tlie 
flange to the diameter, as the flange side would contract considerably more 
than the plain surface ; this is supposing the tires are in a straight form, but, 
in general, they come from the iron-works in a curved state. In the latter 
case, it will be only necessary to add the thickness of the bare metal, as the 
aforesaid portion of the tnickness of the flange is allowed for in the curve. 
It has been found that the curve may be exactly obtained, by using four 
times the circumference of the hoop as a radius. 

If the tire has not been previously curved, it may easily be done in the 
operation of bending ; the smith must pay particular attention to this, or he 
will have his hoop bent in an angle. 

But the practical utility of this Table is not confined to smiths alone; to 
the millwright it will be found equally useful and expeditious, as on a bare 
inspection of the Table he may ascertain the diameter of an^^ wheel that 
may be required to be made, the pitch and number of teeth being given^ 

Ex. — Suppose a wheel were ordered to be made to contain sixty teeth, 
the pitch of the teeth to be 3 7-8 inches, the dimensions of the wheel may be 
ascertained simply as follows : 

Multiply the pitch of the tooth by the number of teeth the w^heel is to 
contain, and the product will be the circumference of the wheel : thus 
3|- inches pitch of the tooth, 
10 X 6 = 60 the number of teeth, 

• • Eeet 19 . 4J the circumference of the wheel. 

However, by inspecting the column marked Circumference, I find the 
nearest number to this is 19 feet 4 3-8 inches, which is the eighth of an inch 
less than the true circumference 3 but if this 1-8 were divided into 60 equal 
parts, it would not make the difference of a single hair's-breadtn in the size 
of each tooth ; so that it is sufficiently near for any practical purpose. The 
diameter answering to this circumference is 6 feet 2 inches 3 consequently, 
with one-half of this number as a radius, the circumference of the wheel 
will be described. 

The manner in which the foregoing Table of Circumferences is found is 
as follows : Taking the diameter at unity, we have by decimal proportion 

in. in. 
As 1 : 3-1416 : : 1- : 3-1416, 
and the decimal 1416 m.ultiplied by 8, gives the circumference for 1 inch 
of diameter 3 1-8 inches. 

In these Tables the number 3-1416 is divided by 8, which gives -3927 
This decimal proportion has been used as a constant,' and the sum multiplied 
by 8 gives the excess above the decimal value in eighths of an inch. 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 



179 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 









ANGLE 


OUTSIDE. 








Piam. 


Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ, 


Diam. Circ. 


Diam. 


Circ. 


Diam.l' Cirr. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. 


Ft. In. Ft. 


In. 


Fl. In. 


Ft. in. 


Ft. In. Ft. In. 


'6 


1 54 


1 6 


4 4| 


2 6 


7 




3 6 


10 3 


4 6 113 2k 


k 


1 6i 


^ 


4 5| 


J 


7 


i 


3 0- 3i 


^13 3 


i 


1 7 


4 


4 6^ 
4 61 
4 7| 


4 


7 


4 


10 44 


413 3| 


1 


1 7| 


1 


S 


7 


^8 


1 


10 5^ 


|13 4f 

4 7 |13 5| 

il3 51 

413 6| 


7 


I 84 


X 7 


2 7 


7 


^l 


3 7 


10 6 


i 


1 H 


i 


4 8| 


^ 


7 


74 


i 


10 6| 


h 


1 9J 


4 


4 91 
4 9| 
4 10| 
4 ll| 


4 


7 


8i 


4 


10 74 


i 


1 io| 


1 


1 


7 


9 


1 


10 si 


i 


13 7| 
13 8l 


8 


1 11| 

2 Oi 
2 0| 
2 l| 


1 8 


2 8 


7 


91 


3 8 


10 8f 


4 8 


1 


^ 


k 


7 


104 


k 


10 9^ 


1 


13 81 


^ 


■ J 


5 


4 


7 


11^ 


4 


10 10| 


4 


13 9| 


i 


1 


5 0| 


i 


8 





1 


10 lU 

10 111 

n of 

11 If 


1 


13 10^ 


9 


2 2| 


1 9 


5 14 


2 9 


8 


Of 


3 9 


4 9 


13 11 


i 


2 3 


^ 


5 21 


k 


8 


1| 


A 


k 


13 Hi 




2 3| 


4 


5 3 


4 


8 


2^ 


4 


4 


14 o4 


1 


2 44 


3- 


5 S| 


5 


8 


2^ 


1 


11 2 


1 


14 li 


10 


2 5i 


1 10 


5 4f 
5 51 
5 5| 
5 61 
5 71 
5 81 


2 10 


8 


3| 


3 10 


11 2| 


4 10 


14 2 


A 


2 6 


i 


A 


8 


4|- 


k 


11 34 


k 


14 2| 


^ 


2 61 


4 


4 


8 


51 
51 


4 


n 4i 


4 


14 3^ 


1 


2 74 


i 


1 


8 


1 


u 5 


1 


14 Ay 


11 


2 8k 
2 8| 


1 11 


2 11 


8 


64 


3 11 


11 51 


4 11 


14 a\ 


^ 


i 


k 


8 


71 


1 


11 64 


^ 


14 5# 
14 6 ■ 


J 


2 9| 


1 


5 8| 
5 9| 


4 


8 


8 


4 


11 1\ 


i^ 


1 


2 104 
2 ll| 


3 


1 


8 


81 


1 


11 71 

11 8| 
11 9^ 
11 101 


1 


14 7S 


1 


2 


5 10| 


3 


8 


94 


4 


5 


14 7! 


^ 


2 11| 

3 of 
3 if 


i 


5 n 


1 


8 


10| 


i 


1 


14 8| 


^ 


h 


5 111 


4 


8 


11 


4 


4 


14 9r 


1 


\ 


6 04 


1 


8 1111 


1 


11 101 


^ 


14 10 


1 1 


3 2 


2 1 


6 u 


3 1 


9 


Of 

ll 

11 


4 1 


11 111 


5 1 


14 ]0| 


^ 


3 2| 


k 


6 2 


1 


9 


i 


12 01 


\ 


14 114 


J 


3 34 


h 


6 2| 


4 


9 


4 


12 1 


4 


15 Oi 


1 


3 H 


1 


6 3| 


1 


9 


2|- 


1 


12 If 


1 


15 1 


1 2 


3 5 


2 2 


6 A 


3 2 


9 


3| 


4 2 


12 24 


5 2 


15 If 
15 2| 
15 3| 
15 31 


^ 


3 51 


^ 


6 41 


\ 


9 


4X 


i 


12 31 


k 


^ 


3 64 


4 


6 5| 


4 


9 


4| 


4 


12 4 


4 


i 


3 7| 
3 71 


§ 


6 6| 


a 


9 


54 


1 


12 Al 


1 


1 3 


2 3 


6 7| 


3 3 


9 


6i 


4 3 


12 5A 


5 3 


15 4^ 
15 h\ 


^ 


3 8| 


i 


6 71 


^ 


9 


7 


1 


12 6i 


1 


^ 


3 9| 
3 10| 


4 


6 8| 


1^ 


9 


7| 


1 


12 6| 


^ 


15 6, 


1 


1 


6 91 


1 


9 


84 


i 


12 7| 


.^ 


15 61 


1 4 


3 101 


2 4 


6 10 


3 4 


9 


9i 


4 4 


12 81 


5 4 


15 74 


^ 


3 ll| 


i 


6 10| 


k 


9 


91 


i 


12 91 


k 


15 81 


h 


4 0^ 


4 


6 114 


4 


9 


io| 


4 


12 91 
12 10.^ 


4 


15 9 


i 


4 1 


3 


7 Oi 


1 


9 


llf 


1 


5 


15 % 


I 5 


4 It 


2 5 


7 1 


3 5 


10 


4 


4 5 


12 III 


5 5 


15 104 


i 


4 24 


1 


7 1! 


00 


4 

il 

4 


.^ 


13 


k 


15 111 




4 3;J 


^ 


7 2| 
7 3| 


410 


4 


13 03 


4I16 0" 


1 


4 4 


•{ 


H 10 


^! 


13 1.^ 


iI6 0| 



180 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 



CIRCUMFERENCES FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 

ANGLE INSIDE. 



Diam 


. Circ. 


Diam.j Circ. 


1 Diam 


. Circ. 


Diam 
. Ft. In 


.1 Circ. 


Diam 


. Circ. 


Ft. In 


. Ft. In 


Ft. In.! Ft. In 


.Ft. in 


. Ft. In 


. Ft. In 


. Ft. In 


. Ft. In. 


6 


1 8^ 


1 6 


5 1| 


2 6 


8 6k 


f 3 6 


11 111 


4 6 


15 4| 




[ 1 9| 




i 5 2.i 


il 8 n 


I \ 


fl2 0| 


il5 5| 


^ 


, 1 10^ 


: 


^ 5 ^ 


I 


\ 8 8| 


I 


12 l| 


I 


h'15 6| 


1 


I 1 Hi 




1 5 4J 


s 
^ 


t 8 9^ 


I 


12 2| 


1 


15 74 


7 


1 111 


1 7 


5 5 


2 7 


8 10^ 


3 7 


12 3i 


4 7 


15 8^ 


- 


E 2 01 




I 5 5J 




f 8 11 


^ 


12 4J 
12 4^ 
12 5| 


^ 


15 9^ 


1 


2 l| 


\ 


5 el 


; 


8 ll| 

9 0| 


J 


i 


15 10 


1 


2 2i 




f ^ 74 


1 


i 


1 


15 lOj 


8 


2 3| 


1 8 


5 84 


2 8 9 14 


3 8 


12 6| 


4 8 


15 111 


J 


2 4| 


i 


\ 5 9i 


i 9 2| 


i 


12 74 


i 


16 0| 


jl 


2 5 


i 


5 10^ 


4 9 ^ 


4 


12 81 


4 


16 14 


1 


2 5| 


1 


5 11 


1 


9 41 


1 


12 9^ 


1 


16 24 


9 


2 el 


1 9 


5 11| 


2 9 


9 5 


3 9 


12 10 


4 9 


16 31 
16 4^ 


i 


2 7| 


^ 


6 0| 


^ 


9 5f 


i 


12 lOJ 
12 li| 


^ 


1 


2 8i 


? 


6 1| 


4 


9 ef 


i 


4 


16 41 


1 


2 9| 


1 


6 24 


1 


9 74 


4 


13 Of 


i 


16 5i 


10 


2 lOi 


1 10 


6 3^ 


2 10 


9 8| 


3 10 


13 14 


4 10 


16 ^■ 

16 7i 


1 


2 11 


i 


6 4i 


i 


9 9^ 


i 


13 2| 


i 


^ 


2 llf 


h 


6 5 


4 


9 10^ 


4 


13 3^ 


4 


16 s; 


S 


3 0| 


1 


6 5X 


1 


9 11 


1 


13 4 


1 


16 9. 


11 


3 If 


1 11 


6 61 


2 11 


9 11| 


3 11 


13 4| 
13 51 


4 11 


16 10 


A 


3 2| 


i 


6 7| 


i 


10 Of 


i 


^ 


16 lOj 


^ 


3 3f 


4 


6 8| 
6 9? 


4 


10 14 


4 


13 6f 


4 


16 11| 


i 


3 4i 


i 


1 


]0 2| 


1 


13 74^ 


1 


17 0| 


1 


3 5 


2 


6 101 


3 


10 3^ 


4 


13 8| 


5 


17 l| 


^ 


S 5i 


^ 


6 11 


i 


10 4i 


i 


13 H 


3 


17 2^ 


^ 


3 6i 


4 


6 111 


4 


10 5 


4 


13 10 


4 


17 3^ 


1 


3 71 


1 


7 0| 


^! 


10 51 


i! 


13 10^ 


I 


17 4^ 


1 1 


3 8h 


2 1 


"^ H 


3 1 i 


10 ^ 


4 1 1 


13 111 


5 1 


17 47 




3 9f 


i 


7 21 


i 


10 74 


3 


14 Of 


j 


17 5| 


1 


3 lOj 


1 


7 4 


4 


10 Sf 

10 9;i 


4 


14 14 


4 


17 64 


1 


3 11 




7 5' 


11 


1 


14 2f 
14 U 


1 


17 7| 


1 2 


3 llj 


2 2^ 


3 2 1 


10 10| 


4 2 1 


5 2 


17 8| 


1 


4 0| 


i 


7 51 


^ 


10 11 


il4 4 


i 


17 pt 
17 10^ 


J 


4 IS 


h 


7 61 


4 


10 HI 


^,14 4 


4 


1 


4 24 


1 


7 74 


1 


11 Of 


^ 


14 hi 


1 


17 10- 
17 111 


1 3 


4 S| 


2 3 


7 8i 


3 3 i 


11 14 


4 3 


14 6f 


5 3 


^ 


4 4^ 


i 


7 9| 


i 


11 2f 


i 


14 7| 

L4 8| 


i -1 


18 0. 


^ 


4 5 


4 


7 lOi 


i 


11 H 


4,] 


4 


18 \\ 

18 2y 


1 


4 55 


i 


7 11 




11 4i 


f] 


14 9| 


ip 


1 4 


4 61 


5 4 


7 111 


3 4 


11 5 


4 4 j] 


4 10 


5 4 ■] 


18 3,: 


i 


4 71 


i 


8 0| 


^' 


11 ^l 


4^ 


4 lOf 
4 111 


i'^ 


18 4 




4 84 


^ 


8 14 


i| 


11 6f 
11 74 


4] 


4^ 


L8 4| 
[8 51 


1 


4 9| 


1 


8 2| 


1 ] 


1^ 


.5 Of 


|] 


i 6 


4 10^^ 


J 5 


8 34 « 


3 5 ] 


11 81 


i 5 |] 


5 14 . 


5 5 |] 


18 64 


^ 


4 11 


i 


8 48 


A ] 


LI 9| 


^1 


5 2i 


4] 


8 7i 


^ 


4 Hi 


4 


8 5 j 


4i] 


11 10^ 


41 


5 3^ 


41 


8 8| 


n. I-. 


6 Of 


1 


8 5|i 


|!i 


11 io| 


11 


5 4 


|] 


8 9| 



CIRCUMFERENCES .FOR ANGLED IRON HOOPS. 181 

Observations on Table containing the Circumferences foi 
Angled Iron Hoops. — Angle Outside. 

As this Table will be useful to those smiths who chiefly work angled 
iron, it will be necessary to remark, that the observation made on Tables 
relating to the Diameters and Circumferences of Circles, respecting addmg 
the thickness of the iron to the diameter, must be attended to in this, with 
this difference, — the breadth of the angle must be added to the diameter. 

Example. — ^Suppose a hoop is wanted to be made of 2J inch angled iron, 
whose diameter inside must be 12 inches. Here the 2J inches must be add- 
ed to the 12 inches, which raises the number to 1 foot 2J inches. Looking 
into the Table, I find the circumference, or length of iron requisite for the 
hoop, is 3 feet 6J inches. 

Observations on Table containing the Circumferences for 
Angled Iron Hoops. — Angle Inside. 

The observations respecting this Table are the reverse to those on the 
preceding one, — viz. the breadth of the angle must be taken from the diam- 
eter, — for this reason, that the diameter is taken from outside to outside of 
the ring. 

Suppose a ring is to be made of angled iron, whose diameter outside is to 
be 12 inches, the breadth of the angle 2^ inches 5 then, by taking 2^ inches 
from 12 inches, we have left 9.^ inches. Looking into the Table in the col- 
umn of diameters, I find in the circumference column, opposite 9^ inches, 
2 feet 84 inches, which is the length of iron necessary for the ring. 

It has been already observed, that between angled and plain iron a con- 
siderable difference exists with regard to the proportion of the circumference 
to the diameter : this is owing to the angle or flange on one side of the bar, 
and when the iron is formed into a hoop : it contrlicts more or less, as the 
angle or flange may be mside or outside of the hoop. From repeated ex 
periments on this subject, I have ascertained that the proportions of the 
diameters to the circumferences are as follows: — For the angle inside as 
1 ; 3-4248, and for the angle outside the hoop, as 1 : 2-9312 : : Diam : Circ'f. 

Problem — To find the circumference of an ellipse, or an oval hoop or ring. 

Rule. — Add the length of the two axes together, and multiply the sum b}' 
1-5708 for the circumference,- or as it may be used in the Table of Circum- 
ferences, take half the sum of the axes as a diameter, with the breadth ot 
the iron added, and enter the Table of Circumferences where it will be found. 

Ex. — Required the circumference of an elliptical hoop, whose axes are 
18J and 13 inches, the thickness of the iron being 2j^ inches. 

18^ -f- 13 = 31i ^ 2 = 15% + 2i = 18i inches the diameter. 

Entering into the Table of Diameter with 18^ inches, the circumference 
will be found to be 4 feet 9^ inches. 

In constmcting elliptical hoops of angled iron, with the angle outside, 
reference must be made to the Tables for hoops of angled iron 3 the opera- 
tion will be similar to the above example. But in hoops where the angle is 
inside, the thickness of the iron must be taken from half the sum of the axes. 

Note. — It must be observed, that in the examples given in the Observa- 
tions on Table relating to the Diameters and Circuniferenccs of Circles, 
and also on hoops formed of angled iron, that those circumferences are 
nothing more than the ends of the iron meeting together 5 therefore, every 
smith must allow for the thickenin<^ of the ends of the metal previous to 
acarving the same in order to weld iti 

IG 



182 SHIP AND RAILROAD SPIKES, AND HORSE SHOES. 



SHIP AND RAILROAD SPHvES. 



NUMBER OF IRON SPIKES PER 100 POUNDS. 

Manufactured by Philip C. Page, Mass., and Sold by Page, Briggs & 
Babbitt, Boston. 



m 
o 
M 


li^^ 




ri CO 




3 -^. ! 


kes 
ire. 




O i 


• Ml 

1 <U 


c3 


.ill 


% 


'B, ^ ^ 


'a ^ ^• 


:"a ^ s^ 


'H. O ^ ! 




S, O E3 


'a CD ^ 






: a^ o ^ 
■2^ -^-S 1 


■i^v 


-r^i 


^ S s' 




1 ^-; 


^ a CO : 




1 1 


1 1 


2 2 

M .3 


size No. 


sizel No. 1 


'size No. 


size No. 1 


size 


No. 


size No. 


size 


No. 


in 


10 


m 


10 


m 


1 


in 10 


in 


10 


1 ^^ 


1 


in 


10 


inc 


lbs. 


inc. 


lbs. 1 


inc. 


lbs. 


inc. lbs. 


inc. 


lbs. 


inc. 


lbs. 


inc. 


lbs. 


3 


1900 


! 3 


1000 ! 


4 


540 


5 1 340 


6 


220 


8 


140 


1 10 


80 


34 


1580 


: 34 


960: 


44 


500 


54 310 


64 


200 


9 


120 


15 


60 


4 


1320 


1 4 


800, 


5 


460 


6 I 300 


7 


190 


10 


110 


— 


— 


44. 


1220 


; 44 


600 


54 


420 


64 280' 


74 


180 


11 


100 








5 


1020 


5 


680 ' 


6 


400 


: 7 } 260 


8 


170 ' 


— 


— 








— 





6 


520 


64 


320 


1 74 240 


84 


160 


— 


— 








""^ 


""^ 


~ 


— ■, 






i 8 : 220 


9 
110 


150 
140 


~~~ 


~~~ 


— 


— 



Rail Road Spikes 9-16ths square 54 inches 160 per 100 pounds. 
Mail Road Spikes 1-2 inch *' 54 *« 200 per 100 pounds. 



BURDENS PATENT SPIKES AND HORSE SHOES. 

Manufactured at the Troy Iron and Nail Factory, Troy, Neio York, 



Boat Spikes. 


Ship Spikes. 


Hook Head. 


j Horse Shoes. 


Size in. No. in 
inches. 100 lbs. 


.Size in 
inches. 


No. in 
100 lbs. 


Size in No. in 
inches. 100 lbs. 


Size in 
; inches. 


No. in 
100 lbs. 


3 

34 
4 

44 
5 

54 
6 

64 

7 

74 

8 

84 
9 
10 


1750 
1468 
1257 
920 
720 
630 
497 
478 
362 
337 
295 
290 
210 
198 


4 

44 
5 

54 . 
6 

64 

7 

74 

8 

84 
9 

1 10 


800 
650 
437 
430 
420 
377 
275 
250 
174 
163 
155 
115 


4 Xf 
44X7-16 

5 X4 
54X4 

1 5^X9-16 
j 6 X9-16 

i 6 Xf 
' 7 X9-16 
8 Xf 


555 
414 
252 
241 
187 
172 
138 
140 
110 


1 
2 
' 3 
4 
5 

i "~ 


84 
75 
65 
56 
39 



COPPERS, TUBING, CAST IRON AND STEEL. 



183 



COTFEB.S. --Dimensions and Weight from 1 to 208 Gallons. 



Inches 




Weight 


Inches 




Weight 


Inches 




Weight 


lag 


Gallons. 


m 


lag 


Gallons. 


in 


lag 


Gallons. 


in 


to brim. 




pounds. 


to brim. 




pounds. 


to brim. 




pounds. 


91 


1 


1* 


24 


15 


224 


294 


29 


434 


12i 


2 


3 


24* 


. 16 


24 


30 


30 


45 


14 


3 


44 


25 


17 


254 


32 


36 


54 


15i 


4 


6 


254 


18 


27 


34 


43 


644 


164 


5 


74 


26 


19 


284 


35 


48 


72 


17* 


6 


9 


264 


20 


30 


36 


53 


794 


18.i 


7 


104 


261 


21 


314 


37 


58 


87 


m 


8 


12 


27 


22 


33 


38 


63 


94* 


20| 


9 


134 


27i 


23 


344 


39 


67 


1004 


21 


10 


15 


274 


24 


36 


40 


71 


1064 


214 


11 


164 


27| 


25 


374 


45 


104 


156 


22 


12 


18 


28 


26 


39 


50 


146 


219 


224 


13 


194 


284 


27 


404 


55 


208 


312 


23^ 


14 


21 


29 


28 


42 









COPPER TUBING. --Weight of the usual Thickness, 
When the inside diameter, is ^ of an inch, 3 ozs. ; f do., 5 ozs. ; 4 do., 
6 ozs. ; I do., 8 ozs. ; J do., 10 ozs. per foot. 



BRASS, COPPER, 


STEEL AND 


LEAD.— Weight of a 


Foot, 




BRASS. 


COPPER. 


STEEL. 


LEAD. 


Diam'ter 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


Weight 


and Side 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of 


of Sq're- 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Round. 


Square. 


Inches. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


^ 


.17 


.22 


.19 


.24 


.17 


.21 






1 


.39 


.50 


.42 


.54 


.38 


.48 






h 


.70 


.90 


.75 


.96 


.67 


.85 






§ 


1.10 


1.40 


1.17 


1.50 


1.04 


1.33 






1 


1.59 


2.02 


1.69 


2.16 


1.50 


1.91 






5 


2.16 


2.75 


2.31 


2.94 


2.05 


2.61 








2.83 


3.60 


3.02 


3.84 


2.67 


3.40 


3.87 


4.93 


n 


3.58 


4.56 


3.82 


4.S6 


3.38 


4.34 


4.90 


6.25 


H 


4.42 


5.63 


4.71 


6. 


4.18 


5.32 


6.06 


7.71 




5.35 


6.81 


5.71 


7.27 


5.06 


6.44 


7.33 


9.33 


14 


6.36 


8.10 


6.79 


8.65 


6.02 


7.67 


8.72 


11.11 


n 


7.47 


9.51 


7.94 


10.15 


7.07 


9. 


10.24 


13.04 


n 


8.66 


11.03 


9.21 


11.77 


8.20 


10.14 


1187 


15.12 


n 


9.95 


12.66 


10.61 


13.52 


9.41 


11.98 


13.63 


17.36 


2 


11.32 


14.41 


12.08 


15.38 


10.71 


13.63 


15.51 


19.75 


2} 


12.78 


16.27 


13.64 


17.36 


12.05 


15.80 


17.51 


22.29 


2i 


14.32 


18.24 


15.29 


19.47 


13.51 


17.20 


19.63 


25. 


2^ 


15.96 


20.32 


17.03 


21.69 


15 05 


19.17 


21.80 


27.80 


24 


17.68 


22.53 


18.87 


24.03 


16.68 


21.21 


24.24 


30.86 


2| 


19.50 


24.83 
2^25 


20.81 


26.50 


18.39 


23.41 


26.72 


34.02 


21 


21.40 


22.84 


29.08 


20.18 


25.70 


29.33 


37.34 


2J 


23.39 


29.78 


24.92 


31.79 


22.06 


28.10 


32.05 


40.81 


3 


25.47 


32.43 


27.18 


34.61 


24.23 


30.60 


34.90 


44.44 



184 WEIGHT OF CAST IRON & IRON AND BRASS BALLS. 



CAST IRON. 

Weight of a Foot in Length of Flat Cast Tron. 



Width 


Thick, 


1 Thick, 


1 Thick, 


1 Thick, 


1 Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


of Iron. 


l-4th inch. 


'S-Sths inch 


1-2 inch. 


5-8ths inch. 
Pounds. 


S-4ths inch. 


7-8ths inch. 


1 inch. 


Inches. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


Pounds. 


2 


1-56 


2-34 


312 


3-90 


4-68 


5-46 


6-25 


H 


1-75 


2-63 


3-51 


4-39 


5-27 


6-15 


7-03 


2h 


1-95 


2-92 


3-90 


4-88 


5-85 


6-83 


7-81 


2S 


214 


3-22 


4-29 


5-37 


6-44 


7-51 


8-59 


3 


2-34 


351 


4-68 


5-85 


7-03 


8-20 


9-37 


Si 


253 


3-80 


5-07 


6-34 


7-61 


8-88 


1015 


3i 


2 73 


4-10 


5-46 


6-83 


8-20 


9-57 


10-93 


3t 


293 


4-39 


5-85 


7-32 


8-78 


10-25 


11-71 


4 


312 


4-68 


6-25 


7-81 


9-37 


10-93 


12-50 


H 


3-32 


4-97 


6-64 


8-30 


9-96 


11-62 


13-28 


4i 


3-51 


527 


703 


8-78 


1054 


12-30 


14-06 


4^ 


3-71 


5-56 


7-42 


9-27 


11-13 


12-98 


14-84 


5 


3-90 


5-86 


7-81 


9-76 


11-71 


13-67 


15-62 


H 


4-]0 


615 


8-20 


10-25 


12-30 


14-35 


16-40 


5i 


4-29 


6-44 


8-59 


10-74 


12-89 


1.503 


1718 


51 


4-49 


6-73 


8-98 


11-23 


13-46 


15-72 


17-96 


6 


4-68 


7-03 


9-37 


11-71 


14-06 


16-40 


18-75 



CAST IRON. 

Weight of a Superficial Foot from ^ to 2 inches thicK. 



Size. 


Weight. 
Pounds. 
9.37 
14.06 
18.75 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 
Pounds. 

37.50 
42.18 

46.87 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. Weight. 


Ins. 


Ins. 
1 
1 
I 


Pounds. 

23.43 
28.12 
32.81 


Ins. 

1 

li 


Ins. 
If 

1| 


Pounds. 

51.56 
56.25 
60.93 


Ins. Pounds, 

1| 65.62 
15 70.31 

2 75 



CAST IRON, COPPER, BRASS, AND LEAD BALLS. 

Weight of Cast Iron, Copper, Brass, and Lead Balls, from 1 inch to 
12 inches in Diameter. 



Q 


51 


1 


1 


1 


Q 




■6 


n 


i 


Ina. 
1 


pounds. 

•136 


pounds. 
-166 


pounds. 

•158 


pounds. ' 
•214 


Inches, 

7 


pounds. 

46-76 


pounds. 
57-1 


pounds. 

54-5 


pounds. 
737 


14 


•46 


•562 


-537 


-727 


7h 


57-52 


70-0 


6711 


900 


2 


1-09 


1-3 


1-25 


1-7 


8 


69-81 


85-2 


81-4 


1101 


24 


213 


2-60 


2-50 


3-35 


8* 


83-73 


102-3 


100-0 


132-3 


3 


3-68 


4-5 


4-3 


5-8 


9 


99.4 


121-3 


115-9 


156-7 


34 


5-84 


714 


6-82 


9-23 


9h 


116-9 


1430 


136-4 


184-7 


4 


8-72 


10-7 


10-2 


13-8 


10 


136-35 


166-4 


159-0 


2150 


44 


12-42 


15-25 


14-5 


19-6 


10^ 


J57-84 


193-0 


184-0 


250-0 


5 


17-04 


20-8 


19-9 


26-9 


11 


181-48 


221-8 


2118 


286-7 


64 


22-68 


27-74 


26-47 


36-0 


in 


207-37 


253-5 


242-0 


327^7 


6 


29-45 


35-9 


34-3 


46-4 


12 


235-62 


288-1 


275-0 


372j3 


64 


37-44 


45-76 


43-67 


5913 













WEIGHT OF ROUND AND SQUARE CAST IRON. 



185 



CAST IRON. 


— Weight of a Foot in Length of Square and Round, 


SQUARE. 


ROUND. 


Size. 


• Weight... 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Size. 


Weight. 


Inches^ 
Square 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Square. 


Pounds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Founds. 


Inches 
Diam. 


Pounds. 


h 


•78 


45 


74-26 


h 


•61 


45 


58-32 


1 


1-22 


5 


78-12 


1 


•95 


5 


61-35 


1 


1-75 


^ 


82-08 


1 


1-38 


H 


64-46 


i 


2-39 


H 


86-13 


i 


187 


H 


67-64 




312 


H 


90-28 




2-45 


5| 


70-09 


n 


3-95 


^4 


94-53 


ij 


3 10 


54 


74-24 


H 


4-88 


5| 


98-87 


H 


3 83 


H 


77-65 


If 


5-90 


5| 


103-32 




4-64 


5| 


8114 


1^ 


7-03 


H 


107-86 


li 


5-52 


^5 


84-71 


ii 


8-25 


6 


112-50 


n 


6-48 


6 


88-35 


li 


9-57 


H 


122-08 


n 


751 


H 


95-87 


15 


10-98 


H 


132-03 


n 


8-62 


64 


103-69 


2 


1250 


64 


142-38 


2 


9-81 


6| 


111 82 


2^ 


1411 


7 


153-12 


n 


11-08 


7 


12026 


2i 


15-81 


'^k 


164-25 


2i 


12-42 


74 


129- 


2| 


17-62 


^h 


175-78 


2| 


1384 


74 


138-05 


2h 


19-53 


n 


187-68 


24 


15-33 


n 


147-41 


2| 


21-53 


8 


200- 


2| 


1691 


8 


15708 


21 


23-63 


8i 


212-56 


^4 


18-56 


8i 


167-05 


25 


25-83 


84 


225-78 


25 


20-28 


84 


177-10 


3 


28-12 


8| 


239-25 


3 


22-08 


8i 


187-91 


3i 


30-51 


9 


253-12 


3^ 


23-96 


9 


198-79 


H 


33- 


9i 


267-38 


H 


25-92 


9i 


210^ 


s| 


35-59 


94 


282- 


3| 


27-95 


94 


221-50 


Si 


38-28 


n 


29707 


34 


30-06 


91 


233-31 


3| 


41-06 


10 


312-50 


3| 


32-25 


10 


245-43 


S| 


43-94 


lOi 


328-32 


3| 


34-51 


\H 


257-86 


^ 


46-92 


104 


344-53 


35 


3685 


104 


270-59 


4 


50- 


10^ 


36113 


4 


39-27 


lOi 


283-63 


4J 


53-14 


u 


378-12 


4J 


4176 


11 


296-97 


4i 


56-44 


115 


395-50 


4| 


44-27 


"i 


310-63 


4| 


59-81 


114 


413-28 


4| 


46-97 


114 


324-59 


4i 


63-28 


111 


431-44 


44 


49-70 


111 


338-85 


4| 


66-84 


12 


450- 


4| 


52-50 


12 


353-43 


4i 


70-50 






4i 


55-37 









STEEL. - 


- Weight of a 


Foot in Length of Flat. 




Size. 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 1 


Size. 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


Thick, 


1-4 inch. 


3-8th8. 


1-2 inch. 


5-8ths. 1 


1-4 inch. 


S-Sths. 


1-2 inch. 


5-8th8. 


Inches 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds.' 


Inches. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pounds. 


pound*. 


1 - 


•852 


1 27 


1-70 


2.13 


24 


2 13 


3-20 


4-26. 


5-32 


n 


•958 


143 


1-91 


2-39 


2| 


234 


3-51 


4-68 


6-85 


H 


1-06 


1-59 


213 


266 


3 


2-55 


383 


511 


6-39 


ir 


1 17 


175 


234 


2-92 


H 


2-77 


4-15 


553 


6-92 


14 


1-27 


1 91 


255 


319 


34 


2-98 


4-47 


5-98 


745 


li 


1-49 


223 


2-98 


372 


3| 


319 


4-79 


6-38 


7-98 


2 


1-70 


2-55 


3-40 


4-26 


4 


.3-40 


5 10 


6-80 


8-52 


2i 


191 


2-87 


3-83 


4-79 













IG^^ 



186 



PARALLEL AND TAPER ANGLE IRON. 



WEIGHTS OF ROLLED IRON 

Per lintalfoot, in pounds and decimal parts, of sections of Parallel Angle^ 
Taper Angle, Parallel J, Taper J, and Sash Iron and Rails, 

Table I. — Parallel Angle Iron^ of Equal SiDESi 



Length of sides. 


Uniform thickness 


Weight of one 


A B, in inches. 


throughout. 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 




3 


1 


8-0 


2| 


70 


2^ 


575 


H 


5-16ths 


4-5 


2 


ifull 


3-75 


li 


i 


30 


n 


i 


25 


If 
1^ 


r No. 6 wire guage 


1-75 


8 


1-5 


1* 


9 


125 


1 


10 


10 


1 


10 


•875 


11 


•625 


4 


11 


•563 


1 


12 


•5 




Table II,— - Parallel Angle Iron, of Unequal Sides. 



L'^th of side 
A m inches. 


L'gth of side 
B in inches. 


Uniform 

thickness 

throughout. 


Weight of 1 
lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




H 


5 


1 


9-75 


3 


5 


S-75 


3 


4 


5-16ths 


7-5 


H 


4 


5-16ths 


6-75 


H 


4 


i 


6-75 


2 


4 


i 


5-5 


2i 


3 


i 


4-75 


2 


2i 


i 


3-375 


li 


2 


i 


2-875 


li 


2 


3-16ths 


2-25 



^i 



mmmxx^ 






Table III.— Taper Angle Iron, of Equal Sides, 



L'gth of sides 


Thickness of 


Thickness of 


Weight of 1 


AA, in inches. 


edges at b. 


root at c. 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




4 


i 


1 


14-0 


3 


i 


10-375 


2| 


7-16ths 


9-16ths 


8-25 


2i 


f 


i 


6-5 


2i 


5-16ths,full 


7-16ths 


50 


2 


ifull 


5-16ths full 


3-875 


11 


i 


5.16ths 


3-25 


li 


i bare 


5-l6th,bare 


2 625 




A --— * 



WEIGHT OF PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON. 



187 



WEIGHT^S OF PARALLEL AND TAPER T IRON. 

Ta6/e /y.- Parallel J iRon, of Unequal Width and Depth. 



Width 


Total 


LTniform 


Uniform 


Weight of 
one lineal 


of top 


depth 


thickness 


thickness 


table A. 


B. 


top table c 


of rib D. 


foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




5 


6 


4 


4 


15-75 


44 


H 


4 


9-16ths 


13-25 


4 


3 




1 


8-875 


Bh 


3 


1 


8-25 


H 


4 


4 


12 5 


24 


3 


f 


Ifull 


7-0 


H 


2 


5-16ths 


4-5 


2 


14 


5-16ths 


5-16ths 


4-0 


IJ 


2 


i 


i 


3-125 


14 


2 


i 


i 


2-875 


n 


14 


i 


h 


2-375 


1 


^ 


3-16ths 


3-16ths 


1-5 


1 


1 


3-16ths 


3-16ths 


1 125 



-At— 



K\\\W^m^\^^ 



3 



Table V. — Parallel J Iron, of Equal Depth and Width. 



Width of top ta- 


Uniform 


Weight of 


ble, and total 


thickness 


one 


depth a, a. 


throughout 


lineal foot. 


in. 


in. 




6 


4 




5 


7-16ths 


13-75 


4 


I 


9-75 


34 


8-5 


3 


7-5 


24 


5-16ths 


4-625 


2i 


5-16ths 


4-5 


2 


5-16ths 


3-75 


11 


i 


30 


14 


k 


2-25 


H 


i 


1-75 


1 


3-16ths 


1-0 


t 


1 


•725 
•625 



i 



_A 5. 



V//////////A'Z(//7^ 







Table F^.— 


Taper T Iron 


Width 


Total 


Thickness 


Thickness] Uniform 


Weight 


of top 


depth 


of lop table 


oftop table thicknes of 


of one 


table A 
in. 


B. 


at root c. 


at edges D. 


nb E. 


lin. foot. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




3 


H 


4 


§ 


7-16ths 


8-0 


3 


n 


7-16ths 




4 


8-0 


2 


3 


7-16ths 


5-f6ths 


5-16tlis 


5-25 


24 


24 


1 full 


4 


4 full 


6-5 


2 


14 


5-16ths 


i 


3-5 


2 


14 


5-16ths 


i 


i 


2-875 




188 



WEIGHT OF IRON SASHES AND KAILS. 



WEIGHT OF SASHES AND RAILS. 
Table VII. — Sash Iron. 



Total 


Depth 


Width 


greatest 


Weifjht of 


depth 


of re- 


at edge c. 


^\^dth 


one lineal 


A. 


bate B. 




D. 


foot. 


in. 


in. 




in. 




2 


1 


No. 9 vv. guage 


5-8ths 


1-75 


n 


1 


7 


9-16ths 


1-625 


H 


1 


6 


9-16ths 


1-25 


H 




10 


9-16ths 


1125 


4 


A 


10 


9-16ths 


1-0 


1 


1 


i 


4 


•75 




Table VIII, — Rails eq,ual top and bottom Tables. 



Depth A 
in inches. 



5 
44 



Width across 
top and bottom, 
BBj in inches. 



m, 

2f 

24 



Thickness 
of rib c. 



in, 
I 



Weight of 
1 lin. foot. 



25-0 

23-33 

21-66 





Table IX. — Temporary Rails. 



Top width 


Rib width 


Bed width 


Total 


Thickness 


Weight of 


a. 


B. 


c. 


depth D. 


of bed E. 


llin. foot 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 


in. 




ij 






S 


2 


7-16ths 


90 


li 




3 


24 


4 


120 


If 




4 


3 




16-0 


2* 






4 


3 


^ 


1733 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 



189 



WEIGHT OF A LINEAL FOOT OF MALLEABLE REC- 
TANGULAR OR FLAT IRON. 

From an Eighth of an Inch to Three Inches Thick. 
T designates the thickness, B. the breadth. 



T. B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


1 B. 

in. 


Weight. 


T 


B. 


Weight. 


T 


. B. 
in. 


Weight. 


in. 


ill 


lbs. ozs. 


lbs. ozs. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. ozs. 


in 


Jbs. ozs. 


i 


1 


1.6 


\ 


lOj 


4 7-3 


4 


94 


7 141 


i 


8| 


|10 13-8 




2-4 




11 


4 9-0 




n 


8 1-4 




9 


11 2.8 




1 


3-3 




114 


4 10-7 




10 


8 4-8 




H 


11 7-8 




1 


41 




114 


4 12-3 




10^ 


8 8-1 




94 


11 127 




% 


5-0 




111 


4 14-0 




104 


8 11-4 




9| 


12 1-7 




i 


5-8 




12 


4 15-6 




10| 


8 14-7 




10 


12 6-7 




I 


Q'Q 










1J[ 


9 20 
9 5-4 




1^4 

104 


12 11 6 

13 0-6 




H 


8-3 


i 


h 


6-6 




114 






1^ 


9-9 




§ 


8-3 




114 


9 8-7 




10| 


13 56 




i| 


11-6 




1 


100 




111 


9 12 




11 


13 10-5 




2 


13-2 




I 


116 




12 


9 15 3 




114 


]3 15-5 




2h 


14-9 




1 

u 


13-2 










114 
Hi 


14 4-5 
14 9-4 




1 0-6 




1 0-6 


Y 


1 


14-9 






n 


1 2-2 




Ih 


1 3-9 




^ 


1 1-3 




12 


14 14-4 




3 


1 3'9 




11 

2 


1 7*2 




1 

14 


1 3-8 

1 8-8 










H 


1 5-5 




1 10.5 




h 


1 


1 10-4 




3^ 


1 72 




24 


1 13-8 




14 


1 13 8 




14 


2 11 




31 


I 8-9 




2d 


2 1-2 




11 


2 2-7 




14 


2 7-7 




4 


1 10 5 




21 


2 4-5 




2 


2 7-7 




i| 


2 14-3 




4i 


1 12-2 




3 


2 7-8 




24 


2 12-7 




2 


3 4-9 




4.^ 


1 13 8 




34 


2 1] 1 




24 


3 16 




24 


3 11-6 




41 


1 15-5 




3'i 


2 14-4 




2| 


3 QQ 




24 


4 2-2 




5 


2 12 




31 


3 1-8 




3 


3 11-6 




2| 


4 8.8 




5i 


2 2-8 




4 


3 51 




34 


4 0-5 




3 


4 15-4 




5i 


2 4-5 




44 


3 8-4 




34 


4 5-5 




34 


5 61 




51 


2 61 




4d 


3 11 7 




33 


4 10-5 




34 


5 12 7 




6 


2 7-8 




4| 


3 15-0 




4 


4 15-4 




3| 


6 3.3 




6i 


2 9-5 




5 


4 2-4 




4i 


5 4-4 




4 


6 9-9 




6^ 


2 IM 




54 


4 5-7 




44 


5 9-4 




44 


7 0-6 




61 


2 12 8 




54 


4 90 




4| 


5 14 3 




44 


7 7-2 




7 


2 14-4 




51 


4 12-3 




5 


6 3-3 




41 


7 13 8 




7i 


3 01 




6 


4 15-6 




54 


6 8-3 




5 


8 4-4 




7| 


3 1-8 




64 


5 3-0 




54 


6 13-2 




54 


8 111 




7i 


3 3-4 




64 


5 6-3 




51 


7 2-2 




54 


9 1-7 




8 


3 5 1 




6i 


5 96 




6 


7 7-2 




5| 


9 8-3 




8i 


3 6-7 




7 


5 130 




64 


7 12-2 




6 


9 14-9 




8i 


3 8-4 




74 


6 0-2 




64 


8 11 




64 


10 5-6 




8i 


3 10 1 




74 


6 36 




H 


8 61 




64 


10 12 2 




9 


3 11-7 




7S 


6 7-0 




7 


8 11 1 




6.1 


11 2 8 




9^ 


3 13 4 




8 


6 10-2 




74 


9 00 




7 


11 94 




94 


3 150 




8i 


6 13-5 




74 


9 50 




74 


12 00 




9^ 


4 (-7 




84 


7 0-8 




71 


9 10-0 




74 


12 6-7 




10 


4 2-4 




8ii 


7 4-2 




8 


9 14-9 




n 


12 133 




104 


4 40 




9 


7 7-5 




84 


10 3-9 




8 


13 3.9 




lOi 


4 5-7 




±K 


7 10-8 




84 


10 8-9 




8.1 13 10-5 



190 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 







T 


. designates tne thickness. I 


, the'lrreadl 


h. 






T. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 


B. Weight, j T. 


B. 


Weight. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. ozs. 


in. 


lbs. ozs. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. ozs.un. 


in. 


lbs. ozb. 


i 


sh 


14 1-2 


f 


94 


19 10-6 


1 


lOi 


26 11-2 


1 


2 


6 10-0 




8| 


14 7-8 




9| 


20 2.9 




11 


27 51 




2i 


7 7-2 




9 


14 14 4 




10 


20 11-2 




Hi 


27 151 




24 


8 4.4 




9? 


15 50 




10^ 


21 3-4 




114 


28 9-0 




2| 


9 1-7 




H 


15 11-7 




104 


21 11-7 




111 


29 3-0 




3 


9 14-7 




9| 


16 23 




10| 


22 4-0 




12 


29 12-9 




H 


10 12-2 




10 

lOi 


16 8-9 
16 15-5 




11 

lU 


22 12 3 

23 4-6 










34 

3| 


11 9'4 






1 


n 


5 11 




12 6-7 




10^ 


17 6-2 




114 


23 12 8 




2 


5 12 7 




4 


13 3-9 




10| 


17 12-8 




111 


24 51 




H 


6 8-3 




4i 


14 1-2 




11 


IS 3-4 




12 


24 13-4 




4 


7 3.9 




44 


14 14-4 




l!i 
II2 


18 100 

19 0-7 










2! 


7 15-5 

8 11.1 




4| 
5 


15 11 7 

16 89 




J 


14 


3 11 6 




3* 






111 


19 7-3 




i| 


4 5-5 




H 


9 6-7 




H 


17 6-2 




12 


19 13-9 




2 


4 15-4 




4 


10 2.2 




54 


18 3-4 










2i 


5 9-4 

6 3-3 




si 


10 13-8 

11 9-4 




5| 
6 


19 0-7 


f 


H 


2 9-4 




24 




? 




19 13-9 




H 


3 1-6 




21 


6 13-2 




H 


12 5-0 




6i 


20 11-2 




n 


3 9-9 




3 


7 7-2 




4k 


13 0-6 




64 


21 84 




2 


4 22 




H 


8 il 




4| 


13 12-2 




6| 


22 5.7 




H 


4 10-5 




34 


8 111 




5 


14 78 




7 


23 2-9 




2I 


5 2-8 




3| 


9 5-0 




H 


15 3-4 




■7i 


24 0-2 




2i 


5 110 




4 


9 14-9 




4 


15 15-0 




74 


24 13-4 




3 


6 3.3 




4i 


10 8-9 




4 


16 10-6 




71 


25 10-6 




Si 


6 11-6 




44 


11 2-8 




6 


17 6-2 




8 


26 7-9 




H 


7 3-9 




41 


11 12-7 




6x 


18 1-8 




H 


27 51 




n 


7 12 2 




5 


12 6 7 




64 


18 13 4 




84 


28 2-4 




4 


8 4-4 




H 


13 0-6 




H 


19 8-9 




81 


23 15-6 




H 


8 12.7 




54 


13 10-6 




7 


20 4-5 




9 


29 12-9 




4? 


9 5-0 




5| 


14 4-5 




H 


21 01 




9i 


30 10-1 




41 


9 13-3 




6 


14 14-4 




n 


21 11.7 




94 


31 7-4 




5 


10 5-6 




H 


15 8-4 




n 


22 7-3 




91 


32 4-6 




5i 


10 13-8 




64 


16 2-3 




8 


23 2.9 




10 


33 1-9 




5I 


11 61 




61 


16 12-2 




H 


23 14-5 




lOi 


33 151 




5| 


11 144 




7 


17 62 




4 


24 101 




104 


34 12-4 




6 


12 6-7 




7i 


18 0-1 




8l 


25 5-7 




10| 


35 9.6 




6i 


12 150 




74 


18 10-0 




9 


26 1-3 




11 


36 69 




64 


13 7-2 




7} 


19 4-0 




?i 


26 12-9 




Hi 


37 41 




61 


13 15-5 




8 


19 13-9 




94 


27 8.5 




114 


38 1-4 




7 


14 7-8 




8i 


20 7-8 




9| 


28 4-0 




111 


38 14-6 




7i 


15 0.1 

15 8-4 

16 0-6 




84 
8i 
9 


21 1-8 

21 11-7 

22 5.7 




10 
104 


28 15-6 

29 11-2 

30 6-8 




12 


39 11-9 








1* 


2i 


8 61 




8 


16 8-9 




9| 


22 15-6 




10| 


31 2-4 




24 


9 50 




8i 


17 1-2 




94 


23 9-5 




11 


31 14 




2| 


10 39 




8.^ 


17 9-5 




91 


24 3.5 




Hi 


32 9-6 




3 


11 2-8 




8| 


18 1-8 




10 


24 13-4 




114 


33 5-2 




H 


12 1-7 




9 


18 10.0 




lOi 


25 7-3 




11| 


34 0-8 




34 


13 0-6 




9i 


19 23 




104 


26 1-3 




12 


34 12.4 




31 


13 15-5 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 
T. designates the thickness, B. the breadth. 



191 



T. 


B. 


W 


eight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in 


B. 

in. 


Weight. 


T. 


B. 


Weight. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in.' in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


H 


4 


14 


14-4 


H 


H 


25 


140 


If 


83 


39 


13-5 


14114 


57 


21 




H 


15 


13-3 




64 


26 


14-5 




9 


40 


15-7 




113 


58 


5.9 




4| 


16 


12-2 




63 


27 


151 




n 


42 


20 




12 


59 


9-8 




4i 
5 


17 


11*1 




7 
71 


28 


15-6 

0-2 




94 
93 


43 
44 


4-2 
6-4 












18 


100 




30 




If 


31 


17 


7-8 




H 


19 


8-9 




74 


31 


0'8 




10 


45 


8-6 




34 


18 


13-4 




H 


20 


7-8 




7| 


32 


1-3 




101 


46 


10-8 




33 


20 


2-9 




5| 


21 


68 




8 


33 


1-9 




104 


47 


130 




4 


21 


8-4 




Q 


22 


5-7 




H 


34 


2-4 




103 


48 


152 




41 


22 


13-9 




H 


23 


4-6 




84 


35 


30 




11 


50 


1-5 




4h 


24 


3 5 




64 


24 


3-5 




83 


36 


3-6 




111 


51 


3-7 




4 


25 


90 




6| 


25 


2-4 




9 


37 


41 




114 


52 


5-9 




5 


26 


14-5 




7 


26 


13 




91 


38 


4-7 




113 


53 


8 1 




H 


28 


4-0 




^i 


27 


0-2 




94 


39 


5-2 




12 


54 


10-3 




54 


29 


9-6 




7| 

n 


27 


151 




93 
10 


40 


5-8 












53 

6 


30 


151 
4-6 




28 


14-0 




41 


6-4 


li 


3 


14 


14.4 




32 




8 


29 


12-9 




101 


42 


6-9 




31 


16 


2-3 




H 


33 


10-2 




8i 


30 


11-8 




104 


43 


7-5 




34 


17 


6-2 




64 


34 


15-7 




?4 


31 


10-7 




103 


44 


8-0 




33 


18 


10-0 




63 


36 


5-2 




8| 


32 


9-6 




11 


45 


8-6 




4 


19 


13-9 




7 


37 


10-7 




9 


33 


8-5 




111 


46 


9-2 




41 


21 


1.8 




71 


39 


0-3 




^3 


34 


7-4 




114 


47 


9-7 




44 


22 


5-7 




74 


40 


5-8 




H 


35 


6-3 




111 


48 


103 




4| 


23 


9-5 




73 


41 


11-3 




H 


36 


5-2 




12 


49 


10-8 




5 


24 


13.4 




8 


43 


0-9 




10 


37 

38 


41 

30 












51 
54 


26 
27 


1-3 
51 




81 
84 


44 


R'A 




lOi 


i| 


23 


12 


8-3 






45 11-9 




lOi 


39 


1-9 




3 


13 


10-6 




53 


28 


90 




83 


47 


14 




101 


40 


0-8 




31 


14 


12-8 




6 


29 


12-9 




9 


48 


70 




11 


40 


15-7 




34 


15 


15-0 




61 


31 


0-8 




91 


49 


12-5 




Hi 


41 


14-6 




33 


17 


1-2 




64 


32 


4-6 




94 


51 


20 




114 


42 


13-5 




4 


18 


3-4 




63 


33 


8-5 




93 


52 


7-6 




111 


43 


12-4 




41 


19 


5-6 




7 


34 


12-4 




10 


53 


131 




12 


44 


11-4 




44 


20 


7-8 




71 


36 


0-2 




101 


55 


2-6 












43 
5 


21 
22 


101 
12-3 




74 
73 


37 

38 


4 1 

8-0 




104 
103 


56 
57 


8-1 
13-7 


n 


24 


10 


5-6 










n 


11 


61 




51 


23 


14-5 




8 


39 


11-9 




11 


59 


32 




3 


12 


6-7 




54 


25 


0-7 




81 


40 


15-7 




111 


60 


8.7 




H 


13 


7-2 




53 


26 


2-9 




84 


42 


3-6 




114 


61 


14-2 




S4 


14 


7-8 




6 


27 


51 




83 


43 


7-5 




113 


63 


3-8 




31 


15 


8-4 




61 


28 


7-4 




9 


44 


11 4 




12 


64 


9-3 




4 


16 
17 


8-9 
9-5 




Gh 


29 


9-6 




91 
94 


45 
47 


15-2 
3 1 












41 




63 


30 


11-8 




ii 


34120 


4-5 




44 


18 


100 




7 


31 


140 




93 


48 


70 




33 


21 


11-7 




43 


19 


10-6 




71 


33 


0-2 




10 


49 


10-8 




4 


23 


2-9 




5 


20 


11-2 




74 


34 


2-4 




101 


50 


14-7 




41 '24 


101 




5i 


21 


11-7 




73 


35 


4-7 




104 


52 


26 




44 26 


1-3 




54 


22 


12-3 




8 


36 


6-9 




103 


53 


6-5 




43 27 


8-5 


H 


23 


128 




Si 


37 


91 




11 


54 


10-3 




6 |28 


15-6 


6 


24 


13-4 




84 1 38 


11-3 




111 


55 


142 




61 30 


68 



192 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 









T 


designates the thickness, B 


. the breadth. 








T. 


B. 


Weight. It. 


B. 

in. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


Weight. 


T. 

in. 


B. 

in. 


Weight. 




in. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


1| 5i 


31 


140 


H 


9 


55 


14-2 


2^ 


4* 


31 


10-7 


H 


81 


65 


3-2 




5| 


33 


5-2 




n 


57 


7-0 




4| 


33 


6-8 




9 


67 


10 




6 


34 


12-4 




94 


58 


15-9 




5 


35 


3-0 




9i 


68 


14-9 




H 


36 


3-6 




91 


60 


8-7 




5i 


36 


15-2 




94 


70 


12-7 




^ 


37 


10-7 




10 


62 


1-6 




54 


38 


11-3 




91 


72 


10-5 




6| 


39 


1-9 




lOi 


63 


10-4 




51 


40 


7*5 




10 


74 


8-3 




7 


40 


91 




104 


65 


3-2 




6 


42 


3-6 




lOi 


76 


61 




u 


42 


0-3 




loi 


66 


121 




n 


43 


158 




104 


78 


3-9 




u 


43 


7-5 




11 


68 


4-9 




64 


45 


11-9 




10| 


80 


17 




H 


44 


14.7 




Hi 


69 


13-8 




6% 


47 


8-1 




11 


81 


15-5 




8 


46 


5-8 




114 


71 


6-6 




7 


49 


4-2 




Hi 


83 


13-3 




8A 


47 


13-0 




111 


72 


15-4 




7i 


51 


0-4 




114 


85 


111 




8i 


49 


4-2 




12 


74 


8-3 




74 


52 


12-5 




111 


87 


8-9 




81 
9 

H 


50 
52 
53 


11-4 
2-6 

9-8 












n 

8 


54 
56 

58 


8-7 
4-8 
1-0 




12 


89 


6-7 




2 


4 


«26 

28 


7-9 
2-4 














8i 


i 


4| 


37 


5-8 




H 


55 


1-0 




44 


29 


12-9 




8^ 


59 


131 




5 


39 


5-2 




9| 


56 


81 




4| 


31 


7-4 




8| 


61 


9-3 




H 


41 


4-7 




10 


57 15-3 




5 


33 


1-9 




9 


63 


5-4 




54 


43 


4-2 




lOi 


59 


6-5 




5i 


34 


12-4 




H 


65 


1-6 




5| 


45 


3-6 




10^ 


60 


13-7 




54 


36 


6-9 




94 


66 


13-7 




6 


47 


31 




10| 


62 


4-9 




5| 


38 


1-4 




91 


68 


9-9 




6i 


49 


2-6 




11 


63 


121 




6 


39 


11-9 




10 


70 


6-0 




64 


51 


2-0 




Hi 


65 


3-2 




6i 


41 


6-4 




lOi 


72 


2-2 




6| 


53 


15 




11^ 


66 


10-4 




64 


43 


0-9 




104 


73 


14-3 




7 


55 


10 




ill 


68 


1-6 




6| 


44 


11-4 




10| 


75 


10-5 




7i 


57 


0-4 




12 


69 


8-8 




7 


46 


5-8 




11 


77 


66 




74 


58 


15-9 












7^ 


48 


0-3 




11^ 


79 


2-8 




7| 


60 


15-3 


n 


3| 


23 


4-6 




' 4 

74 


49 


10-8 




114 


80 


150 




8 


62 


148 


4 


24 


13-4 




n 


51 


5-3 




HI 


82 


111 




8i 


64 


143 




H 


26 


6-2 




8 


52 


15-8 




12 


84 


7-3 




84 


66 


13-7 




44 


27 


15.1 




H 


54 


10-3 













S| 


68 


13-2 












4| 


29 


7-9 




84 


56 


4-8 


2i 


44 


33 


8-5 




9 


70 


12-7 




5 


31 


0-8 




8| 


57 


15-3 




4| 


35 


6-3 




9i 


72 


121 




5i 


32 


9-6 




9 


59 


9-0 




5 


37 


41 




94 


74 


118 




54 


34 


2-4 




H 


61 


4-3 




5i 


39 


1-9 




91 


76 


111 




51 


35 


11-3 




94 


62 14-8 




54 


40 


15-7 




10 


78 


10-5 




6 


37 


4-6 




9| 


64 


9-3 




5| 


42 


13-5 




lOi 


80 


100 




6i 


38 


130 




10 


66 


3-8 




6 


44 


11-4 




10* 


82 


9-4 




64 


40 


5-8 




lOi 


67 


14-3 




6i 


46 


92 




10| 


84 


8-9 




61 


41 


14-6 




104 


69 


8-8 




64 


48 


7-0 




11 


86 


8-4 




7 


43 


7-5 




10| 


71 


3-3 




6| 


50 


4-8 




Hi 


88 


7-8 




7i 


45 


0-3 




11 


72 


13-8 




7 


52 


2-6 




114 


90 


73 




74 


46 


9-2 




Hi 


74 


8-3 




H 


54 


0-4 




HI 


92 


6-8 




n 


48 


2-0 




114 


76 


2-8 




74 


55 


14-2 




12 


94 


6-2 




8 
8i 


49 
51 


10-8 
3-7 




HI 
12 


77 
79 


133 

7-8 




71 

8 


57 


120 
















59 


9-8 


2i 


5 


41 


6-4 




84 
81 


52 


12-5 
5-4 












fti 


61 


7-6 
5-4 


5i 
54 


43 


7.5 




54 


2i 


4i 


29 


14-5 


84 


63 


45 


8.6 



WEIGHT OF FLAT IRON. 



19c 









T 


(les 


ignates th 


e thickness, B 


. the breadth. 








T. 


B. 

in. 


A\" 


eig-lit. 


T. 

in. 


B. 


We 


Lght. 


T. 


B. 


We 


ght. 


T. 

in. 


in. 


Wei 


ght. 


in. 


lbs 


023. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


in. 


in. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


lbs. 


ozs. 


2i 


5| 


47 


9-7 


2| 


7 


60 


13-7 


2| 


84 


77 


6-6 


V>1 

"a 


lOi 


97 


9-6 




6 


49 


10-8 




7i 


63 


0-5 




81 


79 


11 1 




104 


99 


15-7 




H 


51 


12-0 




^h 


65 


3-2 




9 


81 


15-5 




10| 


102 


5-7 




eh 


53 


131 




n 


67 


6-0 




H 


84 


3-9 




11 


104 


11-8 




6| 


55 


14-2 




8 


69 


8-8 




94 


86 


^8-4 




Hi 


107 


1-9 




7 


57 


15-3 




H 


71 


11-6 




91 


88 


12-8 




114 


109 


8-0 




■^i 


60 


0-4 




Sh 


73 


14-3 




10 


91 


1-2 




111 


111 


141 




7j 


62 


1-6 




8| 


76 


11 




lOi 


93 


5-7 




12 


114 


4-2 




7| 

8 


64 


2-7 




9 


78 


3-9 




104 


95 


101 













66 


3-8 




H 


80 


6-7 




10| 


97 


14-5 


3 


6 


59 


98 




H 


68 


4-9 




H 


82 


9-4 




11 


100 


3-0 




6i 


62 


16 




8h 


70 


6-0 




n 


84 


12-2 




Hi 


102 


7.4 




64 


64 


9-3 




8S 


72 


7-2 




10 


86 


15-0 




114 


104 


lis 




6| 


67 


10 




9 


74 


8-3 




10^ 


89 


1-8 




113 


107 


0-3 




7 


69 


8-8 




H 


76 


9-4 




104 


91 


4-6 




12 


109 


4-7 




7i 


72 


0-5 




9'i 


78 
80 


10-5 
11-6 




10| 

11 


93 


7-3 












74 

7| 


74 

77 


8-3 
00 




9i 




95 


10-1 


21 


5| 


54 


120 






10 


82 


12-8 




Hi 


97 


12-9 




6 


57 


21 




8 


79 


7-8 




lOi 


84 


13-9 




114 


99 


15-7 




H 


59 


8-2 




8i 


81 


15-5 




10.^ 


86 


15-0 




111 


102 


2-4 




64 


61 


14-2 




84 


84 


73 




10| 


89 


0-1 




12 


104 


5-2 




6| 


64 


4-3 




8| 


86 


150 




11 


91 


1-2 












7 

'^i 


66 
69 


10-4 
0-5 




9 


89 
91 


6-7 
14-5 




Hi 


93 


2-4 


2| 


54 


50 


15 








11^ 


95 


3-5 




5| 


52 


5-9 




74 


71 


6-6 




94 


94 


6-2 




111 


97 


4-6 




6 


54 


10-3 




n 


73 


12-7 




91 


96 


140 




12 


99 


5-7 




6i 


56 


148 




8 


76 


2-S 




10 


99 


5-7 












64 


59 


3-2 




H 


78 


8-9 




lOi 


101 


13.5 










2f 


H 


45 


10-3 




61 


61 


7-6 




84 


80 


15.0 




104 


104 


5.2 




54 


47 


13-0 




7 


63 


121 




83 


83 


5-0 




10| 


106 


13.0 




51 


49 


15-8 




7i 


66 


0-5 




9 


85 


111 




11 


109 


4.7 




6 


52 


2-6 




74 


68 


4-9 




H 


88 


1-2 




Hi 


111 


12.4 




6i 


54 


5-4 




7| 


70 


9-4 




94 


90 


7-3 




114 


114 


4.2 




64 


56 


8-1 




8 


72 


13-8 




91 


92 


134 




11:! 


116 


11.9 




61 


58 


10-9 




H 


75 


2-2 




10 


95 


3-5 




12 


119 


3.7 



OBSERVATIONS ON TABLE OF FLAT IKON. 

The weig^hts here g-iven are in pounds^ ounces, and decimal parts, avoir- 
dupois ; and it will be seen, on inspecting- the Table, that the first numbers 
in each page are those which apply to nut iron, and that tlie breadth in- 
creases ])y ^} of an inch. The flast numbers in each page show the weight 
of a square foot, according to the respective thickness of each bar. Hence 
the weight of any length of a bar of rectangular iron may be ascertained 
gimply, as follows : 

Rule. — Pvlultiply the tabular weight, according to the thickness and breadth, 
by the number of feet in the bar, the product will be the weight required. 

Example. — In a bar of iron whose thickness is 2\ inches, the breadth G^ 
inches, and the length 18 feet, what is the weight thereof?. 
^ In tiic Tabl(^ for 2 \ inches thick, and opposite G.^ indues, stand -iV* lbs. 7 ozs.; 
being the weight of one lineal foot. Multiply this numl)er by 18 feet, and 
we have as follows ; 

43 lbs. 7 ozs. X 19 — 871 lbs. U ozs. 



194 



ELASTICITY OF STEAM. 



ELASTIC FORCE OF STEAM. 

7^6/6 of the Elastic Force of Steam^ and corresponding Tempera- 
ture of the Water with which it is in Contact. 





Elastic 


i 


Volume ofj 




Elastic 




Tolume of 


Pressure in 


force in 


Temper- ' 


Sceam ; 


Pressure in 


force in 


Temper- 


Steam 


pounds 


Inches 


ature ' 


compared 


pounds 


Inches 


ature 


compared 


per sq. in. 


of 


Fakren't. 


with Vol. 


per sq. in. 


of 


Fahren't. 


with Tol 




Mercury. 




of "Water. 




Mercury, i 




of Water' 


14.7 


30.UU 


212.0 


17UU 


63 


123.5-2 


299.2 


44 9 


15 


30.60 


212.8 


1669 


64 


130.56 


300.3 


443 


16 


32.64 


216.3 


1573 


65 


132 60 


301.3 


437 


17 


34.63 


219.6 


14S3 


66 


134.64 


302.4 


431 


18 


36.72 


222.7 


1411 


67 


136.63 


303.4 


425 


19 


33.76 


225.6 


1343 


63 


133.72 


304.4 


419 


20 


40.S0 


223.5 


1231 


69 


140.76 


3Q5.4 


414 


21 


42 84 


231.2 


1225 


70 


142.S0 


306 4 


408 


23 


44.83 


233.8 


1174 


71 


144.34 


307.4 


403 


23 


46.92 


236.3 


1127 


72 


146.53 


305.4 


398 


24 


43.96 


233.7 


105*4 


73 


143.92 


309.3 


393 


25 


51J0O 


241.0 


1044 


74 


150.96 


310.3 


353 


26 


53.04 


243.3 


1007 


75 


153.02 


311.2 


383 


27 


55.03 


245.5 


973 


76 


155.06 


312.2 


379 


28 


57.12 


247.6 


941 


77 


157.10 


313.1 


374 


29 


59.16 


249.6 


911 


73 


159.14 


314.0 


370 


30 


61.21 


251.6 


633 


79 


1.61.13 


314.9 


366 


31 


63.24 


253 6 


857 


SO 


163.22 


3158 


362 


32 


65.23 


255.5 


833 


81 


16-5.26 


316, 7 


353 


33 


67.32 


257.3 


§10 


82 


167.30' 


317.6 


354 


34 


69.36 


2o9.1 


733 


S3 


169.34 


31S.4 


350 


35 


71.40 


260.9 


767 


64 


171.33 


319.3 


346 


36 


73.44 


262.6 


743 


65 


173.42 


320.1 


342 


37 


75.43 


264.3 


729 


66 


175.46 


321.0 


339 


33 


77.52 


265.9 


712 


67 


177.50 


321.8 


335 


39 


79.56 


267.5 


695 


63 


179.54 


322.6 


a32 


40 


81.60 


269.1 


679 


69 


131.53 


323.5 


32S 


41 


83.64 


270.6 


664 


90 


133.62 


324.3 


325 


42 


85.63 


272.1 


649 


91 


135.66 


325.1 


322 


43 


87.72 


273.6 


635 


92 


157.70 


325.9 


319 


44 


89.76 


275.0 


622 


93 


159.74 


326.7 


316 


45 


91.80 


276.4 


610 


94 


191.78 


327.5 


313 


46 


93.84 


277.8 


593 


95 


193.52 


325.2 


310 


47 


95.33 


279.2 


536 


9Q 


195.56 


329.0 


307 


48 


97.92 


230.5 


575 


97 


197.90 


329.8 


304 


49 


99.96 


231.9 


564 


93 


199.92 


330.5 


301 


50 


102.00 


233.2 


554 


99 


201.96 


331.3 


293 


51 


104.04 


234.4 


544 


100 


204.01 


332.0 


295 


52 


106.08 


235.7 


534 


110 


224.40 


339.2 


271 


53 


108.12 


236 9 


525 


120 


244.52 


345.3 


251 


54 


110.16 


253.1 


516 


130 


265.23 


352.1 


233 


55 


112.20 


239.3 


503 


140 


255.61 


357.9 


218 


56 


114.24 


290.5 


500 


150 


306.03 


363.4 


205 


57 


116.23 


291.7 


492 


160 


326.42 


365.7 


193 


58 


113.32 


292.9 


454 


170 


346.50 


373.6 


las 


59 


120.36 


294.2 


477 


ISO 


367.25 


378.4 


174 


60 


122.40 


295-6 


470 


190 


357.01 


352.9 


166 


61 


124.44 


296.9 


463 


, 200 


403.04 


337.3 


153 


62 


126.43 


293.1 


456 











Water holding impurities in solution tends to retard its aitaining- the aeriform 
state, and so impairs the amount of its elastic force at an equal temperature. 

Common water ) boiling point. 212° F. ( elastic force, 30 inches. 

Sea water I at '212 '- \ '• 23.05 " 



212 

Common water ) boiling point, 216° F. ( 



Sea water. 



216 



32.5 
24.6 



T 



PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 



195 



PRODUCTION AND PROPERTIES OF STEAM. 

When water in a vessel is subjected to the action of fire, it readily im- 
bibes the heat or fluid principle of which the fire is the immediate cause, 
and sooner or later, according to the intensity of the heat, attams a tempe- 
rature of 212^ Fahrenheit. If at this point of temperature the water be 
not enclosed, but exposed to atmospheric pressure, ebullition wil' take 
place, and steam or vapor will ascend through the water, carrying" with it 
the superabundant heat, or that which the water cannot under such circum- 
stances of pressure absorb, to be retained and to indicate a higher tempera- 
tli re- 
Water.^ in attaining the aeriform state, is thus uniformly confined to the 
same laws underevery degree of pressure ; but as the pressure is augmented, 
so is the indicated temperature proportionately elevated : hence the various 
densities of steam, and corresponding degrees of elastic force. 

The preceding Table is peculiarly adapted for estimating the power of 
steam engines on the condensing principle, because in such the effective 
force of the steam is the difference between the total force and the resisting 
vapour retained in the condenser. The following Table is more adapted 
for estimating the effects of non-condensing engines, as, in such, the atmo- 
spheric pressure is not generally taken into account, engines of this principle 
being supposed to work in a medium; or, the atmospheric pressure on the 
boiler, to cause a greater density of steam, is equal to the resisting atmo- 
sphere which the effluent steam has to contend with on leaving the cjdindcr. 

Table of the Elastic Force of Steam, the Pressure of the Atmosphere not 
being included. 



Elastic Force in 


Temperature 
in decrees of 


"^'olume of 
Steam ^Yater 


Cubic in. of 

Water in a 

cubic foot of 

Steam. 


Atmosphere. 


lbs. square inch. 


inch, of Mer. 
5.15 


Fuhr. 


being 1, 


1.19 


2.5 


220 


1196 


1.14 


1.22 


3 


6.18 


222 


1453 


1.13 


1.29 


4 


8.24 


225 


1366 


1.25 


1.36 


5 


10,3 


22S 


1252 


1.33 


1.70 


10 


20.6 


2.40 


1044 


1.64 


2.04 


15 


30.9 


251 


8S3 


1.93 


2.33 


20 


412 


260 


767 


2.23 


2.72 


25 


51.5 


268 


078 


2.52 


3.06 


30 


61.8 


275 


009 


2.81 


3.40 


35 


72.1 


282 


553 


3.09 


3.74 


40 


82.4 


288 


506 


3.38 


4.08 


45 


92.7 


294 


463 


3.6G 


4.42 


50 


103.0 


299 


435 


3.93 


4.76 


55 


113.3 


304 


407 


4.20 


5.10 


GO 


123.6 


309 


3S2 


4.48 



Steam, independent of the heat indicated by an immersed thermometer, 
also contains heat that cannot be measured by any instrument at present 
known, and, in consequence of which, is termed latent or]conccalod iieat ; the 
only positive proof we have of its existence being that of incontestable re- 
sults or effects produced on various bodies. Thus, if one part by weight of 
steam at 212^ be mixed with nine parts of water at G2*, the result is water 
at 178 6® ; therefore, each of tiie nine pirts of \\ater has received from the 
steam IIGG'^ of heat, and consequently the steam lias (.lilfused or given out 
IIG.G X 9= 1019-4 — 33.4 = lOlG'' of heat which it must have contained. 
Again, it is ascertained by experiment, tliat if one gallon of water be trans- 
formed into steam at 212*^, and that steam alloweil to mix with water atfTi'^, 
the whole will be raised lo the boiling i)oint, or 2 1 2". From tlie.so and other 
experiments, it is ascertained that the latent heat in steam varies from 940*^ 



196 



CONSUMPTION OF COAL. 



to 1044°, the ratio of accumulation advancing from 212°, as the steam be- 
comes more dense and of greater elastic force 3 hence the severity of a scald 
by steam to that by boihng water. 

The rules formed by experimenters as corresponding with the results of 
their experiments on the elastic force of steam at given temperatures vary, 
but approximate so closely that the follov/ing rule, because of being simple, 
may in practice be taken in preference to any other. 

Rule. — To the temperature of the steam in degrees of Fahrenheit, add 
100, divide the sum by 177; and the 6th power of the quotient equals the force 
m inches of mercury. 

Ex. Required the force of steam corresponding to a temperature of 312°. 
312 + 100 -T- 177 = 2.3276 = 159 inches of mercury. 

But the Table is much better adapted to practical purposes^ as the vari- 
ous results or effects are obtained simply by inspection. 



CONSUMPTION OF COAL. 

TABLE for finding the CONSUMPTION of COAL per Hour in Steamers 

either Paddle or Screw (the same Screw being used throughout,) at 
any Rate of Speed, the Consumption for a particular Rate being known. 
(At a given Amount of Coal, the Engineer may determine tlie most pru- 
dent Rate of Engine for reaching next coaling Port.) — Engineer's and 
Contractor's Pocket Book, London. 



Speed. 


Consumption 
of Coal. 


3 


.216 


3 1-2 


.343 


4 


.512 


4 1-2 


.729 


5 


1.000 


5 1-2 


1.331 


6 


1.728 


6 1-2 


2.197 


7 


2.744 


71-2 


3.375 


8 


4.096 


8 1-2 


4.910 



Speed. 



9 1-2 
10 

10 1-2 
11 

111-2 
12 

12 1-2 
13 

13 1-2 
14 



Consumption 
of Coal. 



5.83 
6.86 
8.00 
9.26 
10.65 
12.15 
13.82 
15.61 
17 58 
19.68 
2195 



Explanation. 



The speed for the consump- 
tion of a unit of coal is sup- 
posed here to be 5, which may 
be 5 miles or knots, or 5 times 
any number of miles or knots 5 
then if 5 of such number of 
miles require 1 unit of coal 
per hour, 9 of such units will, 
by the table, require 5.83 units 
of coal, and 3 of them .216 
units of coal. 



It will be evident that this Table is calculated on the principle that the 
horse power varies very nearly as the cube of the speed 5 the enormous in- 
crease of consumption at increased velocities is in fact a little greater than' 
that shown by the Table. 

The advantages indicated above to be obtained at low velocities are 
evidently independent of those obtained at those velocities by using the- 
Bteam expansively. 

EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL AND RESULTS OF COKING. 

Under the authority of an Act of the American Congress, approved Sept. 
11, 1841, an extensive series of experiments was concTucted by Prof John- 
son upon the evaporative power of several kinds of coal. The number of 
samples tried was 41, including 9 anthracites from Pennsylvania 5 12 free- 
burning or semi-bituminous coals 5 11 bituminous from Virginia j 6 foreign 
bituminous coals, viz. 1 from Sydney, Nova Scotia, sent by the Cunard Coal 
Mming Company; 1 of Pictou Coal, sent by the same; i of Scotch; 1 of 
Newcastle 3 1 of Liverpool 3 and 1 of Pictou. From one to six trials were 



EVAPORATIVE POWER OF COAL. 



197 



made on each sample, the average quantity used per trial being 978 lbs. The 
experiments occupied 144 days, during each of which continuous obser- 
vations were made during 12 or 14 hours. 

The coals were burnt under a steam boiler, fitted with apparatus for com- 
plete regulation, the supply of water and coals being determined both by 
weight and measure. 

The standard adopted to measure the heating power of each kind of coal 
was the weight of water which a given weight of each evaporated from the 
temperature of 212° Fahr. 

The following Table gives the results of five comparisons in each of which 
that coal which ranks the highest is stated as 1000, and the others in deci- 
mal parts of the integer. 





Comparison, Comparison 


Comparison 


Comparison Comparison 




Kinds of Coal. 


1. 


2. 


3. 


4. 


5. 


1 

ll 


II 


is 






.s 

11 


6 
1 

eg 

1 
1 


|.a 

.5 o 

it 

a" 


,bp 

1 

t 


§ 1 

II 
§1 


o 

s 

1. 
So 




























111 


Relativ 
for equ 

Pound 
produc 
each. 


> 3 




> 




k 


ll 


.>3 

k8 




Anthracites : 












Atkinson and 
Templeman's 


10 70 


1.000 


566.2 


1.000 


7.96 


.633 


0.99 


.505 


5.1 


.725 


52.92 


Beaver Mea- 
dow (No. 5). ) 
Bituminous and 


9.88 


.923 


556.1 


.932 


6.74 


.748 


2.42 


2.07 


6.12 


.060 


56.19 
























free burning : 
























Newcastle . 


8.00 


.809 439.0 


.776 


5.68 


.887 


0.84 


.595 


10.7 


.346 


.50.82 


Pictou . . . 


8.48 


.792:417.9 


.738 


12.06 


.418 


0.85 


.588 


3.7 


LOGO 


49.25 


Liverpool 


7.84 


.733 375.4 


.663 


5.04 


1.000 


0.86 


.581 


11 1 


.333 


47.88 


Cannellon, (In) 


7.34 


.686 348.8 


.616 


5.12 


.984 


0.50 1.000 


6 4 


.578 


47.65 


Scotch . . 


(5.95 


.649 353.8 


.625 


10.10 


.499 


0.96, .521 


5.7 


.649 


51 .05 


Dry pine wood. 4.69 


.4.36; 98 6 


.175 


0.307 


16.417 











The same report states some results of coke-burning, from which it ap- 
pears that by burning m uncovered heaps, and only covering up the ignited 
mass when flame ceases to be emitted (as in many of the iron works of 
Great Britain, France, &c.), the loss in weight at Plymouth has been found 
to be 17 per cent. ; at Penn-y-darran, 20 per cent, j and at Dowlais f where 
it may be presumed the abundance of coal admits of an uneconomical man- 
agement), 34 per cent. By coking in stacks, or well covered heaps of coal 
from 10 to 15 ft. diameter, as followed in Staffordshire, highly bituminous 
coals lose from 50 to 55 pr. ct. weight, and those of a drier nature from 35 to 40. 

By coking in close ovens, a coal which, in an uncovered heap, yields only 
45 to 50 per cent., yields 69 per cent. In the close oven the ^jam in Indk is 
from 22 to !ii3 per cent. ; and while highly bituminous coals yield only 40 to 
45 per cent, in open heaps, and actually ?ose in hulk, ihcy yield in close 
ovens from G5 to 6Q per cent., and s^aifi in bulk. By coking in gas retorts, 
the Deanc Coal of Cumberland gains nearly 30 per cent, in bulk, and loses 
in weight 25 per cent. Carlisle coal nearly the same. Cannol and Cardiff 
coals gain 30 per cent, in bulk, and lose 36.5 in weight. licwick's Wallscnd 
loses 30, and KussclPs Wallscnd, 30.7 per cent, by the same process. 

17* 



198 POWER OF STEAM. 



POWER OF STEAM. 

Mr. Tredgold g-ives the following- Table, which will show how the power 
of the steam as it issues from the boiler, is distributed. 

IX A NON-CONDENSING ENGINE. 

Let the pressure on the boiler be 10.000 

Force required to produce motion of the steam in the cylinder will be 0.009 

Loss by cooling in the cylinder and pipes 0.160 

Loss by friciion of the piston and waste 2.000 

Force required to expel the steam into the atmosphere 0.069 

Force expended in opening the valves, and friciion ofthe various parts 0.622 

Loss by the steam being cut off before the end ofthe stroke 1,000 

Amount of deductions • 3.920 

Effective pressure 6.080 

IN A CONDENSING ENGINE. 

Let the pressure on the boiler be 10.000 

Force required to produce motion ofthe steam in the cylinder 0.070 

Loss by cooling in the cylinder and pipes 0.160 

Loss by friction ofthe piston and waste 1.250 

Force required to expel the steam through the passages 0.070 

Force required to open and close the valves, raise the injection 

water, and overcome the friction of the axes 0.630 

Loss by the steam being cut off before the end of the stroke 1.000 

Power required to work the air-pump 0.500 

Amount of deductions 3.680 

Effective pressure 6.320 

If we now suppose a cylinder whose diameter is 24 inches, the area of this 
cylinder and consequently the area of the piston in square inches, will be, 

242 X .7854 = 452.39 

Let us also make the supposition that steam is admitted into the cylinder 
of such power as exerts an effective pressure on the piston of 12 lbs. to the 
square inch 3 therefore, 452.39X12 = 5428.68 lbs., the whole force with 
which the piston is pressed. If we now suppose that the length of the stroke 
is five feet, and the engine makes 44 single or 22 double strokes in a minute, 
then the piston will move through a space of 22 X 5 X 2 = 220 feet in a 
minute j the power of the engine being equivalent to a weight of 5428 lbs. 
raised through 220 feet in a minute. 

This is the most certain measure ofthe power of a steam engine. It is 
usual, however, to estimate the effect as equivalent to the power of so many 
horses. This method, however simple and natural it may appear, is yet, 
from differences of opinion as to the power of a horse, not very accurate ; 
and its employment in calculation can only be accounted for on the ground, 
that when steam engines were first emplo^'ed to drive machinery, they were 
substituted instead of horses ; and it became thtis necessary to estimate what 
size of a steam engine would give a power equal to so many horses. 

There are various opinions as to the power of a horse. According to 
Smeaton, a horse will raise 22,916 lbs. one foot high in a minute. Desagu- 
Jiers makes the number 27,5003 and Watt makes it larger still, that is, 33,000. 
There is reason to believe that even this number is too small, and that we 
may add at least 11,000 to it, which gives 44,000 lbs* raised one foot high 
per minute. — Grier, 



RULES AND TABLES 



FOR 



GAUGING, ULLAGING, &c. 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 201 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 

In takino; the dimensions of a Cask it must be carefully observed : 
1st, That the bung-hole be in the middle of the cask ; 2d, That the 
bung-stave, and the stave opposite to the bung-hole, are both regular 
and even within; 3d, That the heads of the Cask are equal, and 
truly circular; if so, the distance between the inside of the chime to 
the outside of the opposite stave will be the head diameter within 
the Cask, very near. 

Rule. — Take, in inches, the inside diameters of a Cask at the 
Head and the Bung, and also the Length; subtract the head-diameter 
from the bung-diameter, and note the difference. 

If the measure of the Cask is taken outside, with callipers, from 
head to head, then a deduction must be made of from 1 to 2 inches 
for the thickness of the heads, according to the size of the Cask. 

1 If the staves of the Cask, between the bung and the head, are 
considerably curved, (the shape of a Pipe), multiply the difference 
between the bung and head, by .7. 

2. If the staves be of a medium curve, (the shape of a Molasses 
Hogshead), multiply the difference by ,Q5. 

3. 7/ the staves curve very little, (less than a Molasses Hogs- 
head), multiply the difference by .6. 

4. If the staves are nearly straight, (almost a Cylinder), mul- 
tiply the difference by .55. 

5. Add the product, in each case, to the head-diameter ; the sum 
will be a mean diameter, and thus the Cask is reduced to a cylinder. 

6. Multiply the mean diameter by itself, and then by the length, 
and multiply if for Wine gallons, by .0034. The difference of dividing 
by 294 (the usual method), and multiplying by .0034 (the most ex- 
peditious method), is less than SOOths of a gallon in 100 gallons. 

EXAMPLE. 

Supposing the Head-Diameter of a Cask to be 24 inches, the Bung. 
Diameter 32 inches, and the Length of Cask 40 inches ; What is the 
content in Wine Gallons ? Is^ variety. 



Bung-Diameter, 32 
Head-Diameter, 24 




brought up 876.16 
Length, 40 


Difference, 8 
Multiplier, .7 






35046.40 

.0034 


5.6 
Head-Diam., 24 






14018560 
10513920 


multiply 29.6 
by 29.6 






119.157760 


carry up Square, 876.16 


Ans, 


119 galls 


. 1 pint. 



To obtain the contents of a similar Cask in Ale Gallons, multiply 
35046.40 by .002785, and we get 97.6042, (or 97 gallons 5 pints.) 



202 



GAUGING OF CASKS. 



GAUGING OF CASKS IN IMPERIAL (BRITISH) GALLONS. 
AND ALSO IN UNITED STATES GALLONS. 

Having ascertained the variety of the Cask, and its interior dimen- 
sions, the following Table will facilitate the calculation of its capacity. 

Table of the Capacities of Casks, whose Bung Diameters and 
Lengths are I or Unity. 



H. 1st Yar. 2d Yar. 3d Yar. 4th Yar. 



.50 .0021-244 
.51 .0021340 
.52 .0021437 
.53!. 0021536 
.54!. 0021637 
.55.0021740 
.56' 002J845 
.57,. 0021951 
.58 .0022060 
.59 .0022170 
.60.0022283 
.61. 002239' 
.62.0022513 
.63 .0022631 
.64 .0022751 
.65' .0022373 
.66 .0022997 
.67 .0023122 
.68 .0023250 
.69 .002337! 
.70 .0023510 
.711.0023643 
.72 .0023778 
.73 .0023915 
.74 .0024054 
.75 .0024195 



.0020300 
.0020433 
.0020567 
.0020702 
.0020838 
.0020975 
.0021114 
.0021253 
.0021394 
.0021536 
.0021679 
,0021823 
.0021968 
.0022114 
.0022262 
.0022410 
.0022560 
.0022711' 
.0022863 
,0023016 
,0023170' 
.0023326 
,0023482 
.0023640 
,0023799 
,0023959 



.0017704 
.0017847 
.0017993 
.0018141 
.0018293 
.0018447 
.0018604 
.0018764 
.0018927 
.0019093 
.0019261 
.0019433 
.0019607 
.0019784 
.0019964 
.0020147 
.0020332 
.0020521 
.0020712 
.0020906 
.0021103 
.0021302 
.0021505 
.0021710 
.0021918 
.0022129' 



.0016523 
.0016713 
.0016905 
.0017098 
.0017294 
.0017491 
.0017690 
.0017891 
.0018094 
.0018299 
.0018506 
.0018715 
.0018925 
.0019138 
.0019352 
.0019568 
.0019786 
.0020006 
.0020228 
.0020452 
.0020678 
.0020905 
.0021135 
,0021366 
.0021599 
.0021834 



.76 .0024337 
.77 .0024482 
.78 .0024628 
.79 .0024777 
.80 .0024927 
.81 .0025079 
.82 .0025233 
.83 .002.5388 
.84 .0025546 
.85 .0025706 
.86 .0025867' 
.87 .0026030 
.88 .0026196 
.89 .0026363 
.90 .0020532 
.91 .0026703 
.92 .0026875 
.93 .0027050 
.94 .0027227; 
.95 .0027405 
.96 .0027585 
.97 .0027768 
.98 .0027952 
.99 .0028138. 
ll.OO .0028326,, 



H. 1st Yar. 2d Yar. 3d Yar. 



.0024120 
0024282 
.0024445 
.0024610 
.0024776 
.0024942 
.0025110 
.0025279 
.0025449 
.0025621 
.0025793 
.0025967 
.0026141 
.0026317 
.0026494 
.0026672 
.0026851 
.0027032 
.0027213 
.0027396 
.0027579 
.0027764 
.0027950 
0028137 
0028326 



.0022343 
.0022560 
.0022780 
.0023002 
.0023227 
.0023455 
.0023686 
.0023920 
.0024156 
.0024396 
.0024638 
.0024883 
.0025131 
.0025381 
.0025635 
.0025891 
.0026150 
.0026412 
.0026677 
.0026945 
.0027215 
.0027489: 
.0027765 
.0028044! 
.0028326 



4th Yar. 

.0022071 
.0022310 
.0022551 
.0022794 
.0023033 
.0023285 
.0023.533 
.0023783 
.0024035 
.0024269 
.0024545 
.0024803 
.0025063 
.0025324 
.0025588 
.0025853 
.0026120 
.0026389 
.0026660 
.0026933 
.0027208 
.0027484 
.0027763 
.0028043 
.0028326 I 



Divide the head by the bung diameter, and opposite the quotient 
in the column H, and under its proper variety, is the tabular number 
for unity. Multiply the tabular number by the square of the bung 
diameter of the given cask, and by its length, the product equals its 
capacity in Imperial gallons. 

Required the number of Gallons in a Cask, (1st variety,) 24 inches 
head diameter, 32 bung diameter, and 40 inches in length i 
32) 24.0 (.75 see Table for tabular No. 

.0024195 tabular No. for unity. 

32 X 32 is 1024 square of bung diam. 

96780 
48390 
24195 



2.4775680 

40 Inches long. 



99.1027200 Imperial Gallons. 

L2 

1982054400 
991027200 



Note. — Multiply- 
ing Imperial gallons by 
one & tw^o-tenths (1.2) 
will convert them into 
U. S. gallons ; and U. S. 
gallons multiplied by 
•833 equal Imperial 
gallons. 



118.92326400 United States Gallons. 



ULLAGE OF CASKS. 



203 



TO ULLAGE, OR FIND THE CONTENTS IN GALLONS 
OF A CASK PARTLY FILLED. 

To find the contents of the occupied part of a lying cask in gallons. 

Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the bung 
diameter, and if the quotient is under .5 deduct from the quotient one- 
fourth of what it is less than .5, and multiply the remainder, by the 
whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons 
in the cask. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-fourth of that 
excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capacity 
of the cask, this product will be the number of gallons. 

Example i. — Suppose the bung-diameter of a cask, on its bilge, 
is 32 inches, and the whole contents of the cask 118.80 U. S. standard 
gallons ; required the ullage of 15 wet inches, 

32) 15.00 (.46875 .5 — .46875 = .03125 -^ 4 == .0078125 .46875 — 
.0078125 =.4609375 X 118.80 = 54.759375 U. S. Gallons. 

Example ii. — Required the ullage of 17 wet inches in a cask of 
the above capacity ? 

32) 17.00 (.53125 — .5 = .03125 -f- 4= .0078125 + .53125 = .5390625 
X 118.80 = 64.040625 U. S. Gallons. 

Proof — 64-040625 + 54-759375 = 118-80 gallons. 

To find the ullage of a filled part of a standing Cask, in gallons. 

Rule. — Divide the depth of the liquid, or wet inches, by the 
length of the cask; then, if the quotient is less than .5, deduct from 
the quotient one-tenth of what it is less than .5 and multiply the re- 
mainder, by the whole capacity of the cask, this product will be the 
number of gallons. But if the quotient exceeds .5, add one-tenth of 
that excess to the quotient, and multiply the sum, by the whole capac- 
ity of the cask, this product will be the ullage, or contents in U. S. 
standard gallons. 

Example. — Suppose a cask, 40 inches in length, and the capacity 
118.80 gallons, as above: required the ullage of 21 wet inches ? 
40) 21.000 (.525 — .5 = .025 -r- 10 = .0025 + .525 = .5275 X 118.80 
= 62.667 U. S. Gallons. 



Note. — Formerly the British Wine and Ale Gallon measures were sim- 
ilar to those now used in the [Jnited States and British Colonies. 

The following Tables exhibit the comparative value between the United 
States and the present British measures. 



British (Im.) measure. 
I)ts. gills. 



U. S. measure for 

wine, spirits, &c. galls, qt: 

42 gulls. = 1 tierce, = 34 3 
63 =1 liogsh. = 52 1 

126 = 1 pipe, = 104 3 

252 =1 tun, =209 3 



U. S. measure for 
ale and beer. 



9 galls. = 1 firkin, = 9 
30 =1 l);irrel,= 36 

54 =1 liogsh.= 54 

108 =1 hull, =109 



British (Im.) measure, 
galls, qts. pts. gills. 



To convert Imperial Gallons into United States Wine Gallons multiply the im- 
perial by 1-2. To convert U. S. Gallons into Imperial multiply the U. Slates 
Wine gallons by -833. 

51 U. S. Ale Gallons equal 00 Imperial Gallons, therefore to convert one into 
other add or deduct 1-COih. 



204 PLOUGHING, PLANTING. WEIGHT OF WOOD, &C. 



PLOUGHING. 

Table showing the distance Travelled by a horse in Ploughing an Acre of 
|_iand5 also, the quantity of Land worked in a Day^ at the rate of 16 
and 18 miles per day of L) hours. 



B'dth of Space travel- 
Furrow led in Plough- 


Extent Ploughed 


B'dth of 
Furrow 


Space travel- 
led in Plough- 


Extent Ploughed 


slice. 


ing an Acre. 


per Day. 


slice 


ing an Acre. 


per Day. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 Miles. 


16 Miles. 


Inches. 


Miles. 


18 Miles. 


16 Miles. 


7 


141-2 


11-4 


11-8 


14 


7 


2 1-2 


2 1-4 


8 


12 1-2 


1 1-2 


11-4 


15 


6 1-2 


2 3-4 


22 5 


9 


11 


IS-o 


11-2 


15 


6 1-6 


2 9-10 


2 3-5 


10 


9 9-10 


14-5 


13-5 


17 


5 3-4 


3 1-10 


2 3-4 


11 


9 


2 


13-4 


18 


5 1-2 


3 1-4 


2 9-10 


12 


8 1-4 


2 1-5 


19-10 


19 


5 1-4 


3 1-2 


3 1-10 


13 


7 1-2 


2 1-3 


2 1-10 


20 


4 9-10 


3 1-5 


3 1-4 



PLANTLNG. 

Table showing the number of Plants required for one Acre of Land^ from 
one Foot to Twenty-one Feet distance from Plant to Plant. 



Feet No. of 


Feet 


No. ofl Feet 


No. of 


Feet 


No. of Feet 


No. of 


Distance. Hill-. 


Distance 


Hills. 1 Distance. 


Hills. 


Distance. 


HiUs. 


Distance 


ITilli 


1 43,560 


4 


2,722 


7 


889 


10 


436 


17 


151 


Ik 19,360 


44 


2,151 


74 


775 


104 


361 


IS 


135 


2 10,890 


5 


1,742 


8 


680 


12 


302 


20 


103 


2i 6,969 


54 


1,440 


84 


602 


14 


223 


21 


99 


3 4,840 


6 


1,210 


9 


538 


15 


193 


25 


69 


3J 3,556 


64 


1,031 


94 


482 


16 


171 


30 


48 



WEIGHT OF A CORD OF WOOD. 

Table of the Weight of a Cord of different kinds of Dry Wood, and the 
comparative value per Cord. 



A Cai 



d of Hickory, - - 4469 
Maple, - - - 2863 
White Birch, - 2369 


rounds, 


'' Beech, - 3236 




" Ash, - - 3450 




Pitch Pine, - - 1904 




White Pine, - 1868 




Lonabardy Poplar 1774 
White Oak - - 3R21 




Yellow Oak, - 2919 




Red Oak, - - 3254 





- Carbon - 



100 
54 

48 
65 
77 
43 
42 
40 
81 
60 
69 



Note. — Nearly one half of the weight of a growing Oak tree consists of 
sap. Ordinary Dry Wood contains about one-fourth of its weight in water. 

CHARCOAL. 

Oak, Maple, Beech, aiid Chestnut make the best quality. Be- 
tween 15 and 17 per cent, of coal can be obtained when the wood is 
properly burned. A bushel of coal from hard wood weighs between 
29 and 31 lbs., and from from pine between 28 and 30 lbs. 



















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